Evolutionary Alarm Sounds in Language Research | Alarm Sounds within Languages

Thesis: Evolutionary Alarm Sounds within Languages by Christopher Richard Oszywa (Early Incomplete Draft)

Dear Reader

You are about to be challenged by a fascinating concept that has been overlooked by philosopher and scientists for centuries. Be prepared that your conceptions about why things happened in history will be challenged.

You will be presented with a theory that can prove to be of great importance and a missing link to understanding many things that seem irrational about the workd. For instance it can prove to be a missing link to the understanding of why some societies, such as China, are able to thrive economically while others, such as various African countries, are extremely poor.

I believe that this theory provides a very compelling argument, one that is currently being experimentally verified. I believe that, because of its ease of application, the application of the theory will allow the third world to become economically developed.

The assumption which underlies the current theory is that for a given society to develop economically, its members must demonstrate a heightened state of alertness. Specifically, I believe that to achieve this heightened state of alertness, human beings are required to be stimulated through a primitive, evolutionary communication system. This primitive evolutionary communication system has especially evolved to enable human beings and other members of the animal kingdom to automatically perceive the threats in their external environments. As human beings and animals perceive threats in their environments, they instantaneously produce alarm signals. This tendency is universally similar among the various animals that comprise the evolutionary scale.

The crux of the current theory, of which facets will be later explored in more detail, is that one can actually create a language, which contains within it many such evolutionary alarm sounds. If such a language was to be constructed, it would then automatically increase the alertness of the individuals who use it as their means of communication. This in turn would create the right psychological environment for economic progress to take place.

In the past, evolutionary alarm sounds were contained in the languages of many highly civilized societies. As the alarm qualities within these languages got gradually replaced with other sounds, these societies experienced corresponding downfalls.

In modern times, the most industrialized societies of the world speak languages that contain many evolutionary alarm sounds within their syllables. Conversely, the societies that struggle economically speak languages that do not contain many evolutionary alarm sounds. To better illustrate this, let us consider an analogy. Just as good soil is a necessary precondition for the growth of plants, I am suggesting that increased alertness in its population is the precondition that a society must meet before it can develop the factors that enhance its economic growth (such as a well developed education system). Increased alertness in a society can be brought about if its population communicates using a language which contains within it many evolutionary based alarm signals.

You will first explore the concept of alarm sounds, how the alarm sounds exist in nature and how they can exist within syllables of languages. In the second chapter your will progress to evaluate the world languages in terms of their the frequency of alarm sounds. The third chapter explores some of the major ancient civilization in

find the way that alarm language might impact on the culture and on the individual from a psychological perspective.

In chapter five you will explore the dominance hierarch and how communication might be affected by a language with alarm sounds.

Chapter 6 looks at the alarm sounds and how they impact on economic development and it will present a model for language change of any given society .

The appendix includes the experiment that is currently being carried out to provide experimental evidence to support the theory proposed in this book

Contents

PART 1: Understanding alarm sounds within languages and their impact on the economic development of the world

PART 2: Languages with Alarms

PART 3: Languages without significant amount or Alarm components

PART 4: Ancient Civilizations

PART 5: Understanding the Impact of Alarm Languages on Psychology and Behavior.

PART 6: Emerging theory of economical development

References:

Appendix:

PART 1

Understanding alarm sounds within languages and their impact on the economic development of the world

1.1. Background Information.

For thousands of years, historians have wondered about the reasons behind the rises and falls of civilizations. It is commonly believed that civilizations advanced if they possessed a combination of factors that have allowed them to develop and prosper economically. Among these factors are a well developed education system, a wealth of natural resources (E.g. minerals and fertile soil), military power, good leadership, a lack of corruption and decadence, diligent work ethic and extensively developed trade networks.

Just as the presence of any one or more of the above factors have been used to explain the development of economic advancement and prosperity in certain civilizations, economic hardships and declines have been attributed to the lack of any one or more of the above components. For instance, the decline of ancient Greece has been traditionally attributed to the loss of trade and military strength.

In addition to asking why ancient civilizations rose and fell, many modern thinkers are puzzled by a comparable question, that is why some societies have been able to become industrialized while many other parts of the world remained industrially undeveloped. When one looks at the economic performance of countries around the globe, it becomes apparent that there exists an enormous discrepancy in the rate of economic development in the various regions. To date, the wealthiest and most industrialized regions of the world are the western countries (Western Europe, North America and Australia) and the Asia Pacific countries (Japan, Korea, China, Taiwan, Singapore and Malaysia). On the other hand, most of the regions that comprise South America, Africa, Middle East and the Indian subcontinent are unable to develop their economies to the extent that is seen in the western countries and the Asia Pacific countries.

Over the years, various national governments and institutions, such as the United Nations, have tried to advance the economic progress of some of the most underdeveloped areas of the world, by attempting to create in them an environment that is benevolent to their industrial progress. They hoped to do this by introducing them to the factors which they believed are responsible for the economic growth and decline of societies. For example, some of the representatives of the United Nations’ institutions believed that education was the key factor that had the power to influence the economic development of the various economically underdeveloped regions of the world. Hence, over the years, using their enormous financial resources, United Nations initiated various education programs (For example in 1961 McClelland began conducting training courses in order to reinforce the achievement motive. United Nations Industrial Development Organization still delivered such courses in 1980s). Unfortunately, these education programs didn’t live up to their expectations, as they have done little to advance the economies of the under-developed regions of the world.

To date, many authorities from the disciplines of psychology, sociology and economics continue to search for ways to advance the economic development of the underdeveloped regions of the world. Some of the explanations that have been put forward to understand the failure of the third world countries to develop their economies are similar to the traditional explanations that have been put forward to understand the rises and falls of many ancient civilizations.

Among the many authors who have put forward theories to explain why certain civilizations rose and fell are Toynbee (1974) and McClelland (1961). Toynbee suggested that economic growth of societies is dependent upon the presence of a challenge in their environments, which may either be internal or external. On the other hand, McClelland, believed that the economic progress of a society is proportional to the strength of its achievement motive, which motivates its population to action.

Unfortunately, among the many theories that have been put forward to explain the reasons why certain civilizations fall, not one convincingly explains the fact that some societies and not others are able to develop the above factors, and not one offers lasting, applicable solutions to the economic hardships and struggles of the third world countries. It is true that each of the factors mentioned above has the potential to contribute to the economic growth of a society.

However, I believe that there exists an underlying mechanism that effects the ability of a society to develop the above factors!

1.2. A new Theory: A Practical Approach to the Acceleration of Economic Growth in the Third World.

1.3 The Evolutionary Communication System.

The role which evolution plays in the selection of behaviors that maximize the chances of survival of human beings and other animals has been investigated for a very long time. Those behaviors and information-processing systems which aid the survival of human beings and other animals are controlled by brain structures which are believed to have evolved the earliest, such as the mammalian limbic system and the archaic reptilian core.

Specifically, the mammalian limbic system and the archaic reptilian core control those automatic reflexes of human beings and other animals which directly support their life, for example the physiological reflexes: breathing and heartbeat. Additionally, the mammalian limbic system and the archaic reptilian core control some of the psychological automatic reflexes, one of which is our innate ability to recognize and produce alarm sounds.

When feeling afraid or when perceiving their lives to be under threat, animals and humans produce signals which communicate their fear and distress to other animals, both within and outside their own species.

In 1959, Collias pointed out that one of the most automatic responses which animals make to the presence of an enemy is the announcement of the enemy. In this way, any possible danger in their environment may be exposed to the animals that may be in the vicinity of the dangerous situation.

Auditory signals are of central importance here. For example, birds and mammals heed to the warning sounds produced by other animal species. An example of this is the tendency of seals and sea lions to flee in response to the warning sounds produced by gulls and cormorants, even thought gulls and cormorants tend to be much more alert to the approach of danger then are seals and sea lions (Bartholonew, 1952).

Many more examples of the inter-specificity of alarm and distress signals among birds are described by Bunsel (1963). However, the characteristics which the distress sounds of birds have in common are their loudness, harshness, high pitch and in most instances prolonged quality.

Sounds that are loud, high-pitched and prolonged are also the alarm calls of numerous other animals, such as human infants, insects, fish and anurans.

Evolution intended alarm sounds to be loud, high pitched and prolonged. Sounds which share these qualities are universally perceived by the majority of animal species as distress signals.

Hall (1947) demonstrated this very well by showing that the fear-inducing effect of sounds that are loud, harsh, high pitched and prolonged elicit extreme reactions in some animals. For instance, at the ringing of an alarm clock, some abnormally sensitive strains of mice race madly about, go into convulsion and die.

In 1953, Collias and Joss investigated the alarm calls of the flying hawks, which consist of loud and harsh screams. These alarm calls instantly cause the chicks of the flying hawks to run short distances and then freeze into silent immobility. Even taped playbacks of these calls have this effect on the flying hawks’ chicks.

Rosenhouse (1977) brought to light the fact that human infants also give out alarm sounds, that differ depending on whether the infants are hungry, ill or in pain. This suggests that human infants have an inborn, evolutionary based system that processes and sends out alarm sounds.

The evolutionary logic of the structure of the alarm sounds could come from what is termed as the freezing phenomenon which occurs when animals when animals perceive threatening stimuli. Givens (1978c) points out that the freezing phenomenon is a mamma-wide response to fearful stimuli and that it is a visible social response in the human by four weeks of age. Sound produced when an animal is frightened is as if was frozen, making them prolonged in duration and easily recognizable by being regular and high pitched.

The words of Dr Manfred Clynes are the perfect way to summarize this evolutionary level of processing: “…nature has made the communication of emotions elegantly simple” (1989, p.7.). By this, Dr Clynes means that our ability to recognize emotions is genetically encoded, so that emotions are automatically responded to by our nervous system.

1.3. Understanding Alarm Sounds within Languages.

All alarm calls show strong ecological similarities. They can be distinguished from non alarm sounds by their long duration and regular structure.

Fig 1. A simplified voiceprint of an alarm call made by a blackbird.

The horizontal axis of the above voiceprint depicts time and the vertical axis of the above voiceprint depicts pitch, which is measured in cycles per second, or hertz. Note that the above voiceprint contains the characteristics of an alarm sound, as it has a long duration, and the symmetrical structure of its dark bands indicates regularity. These dark bands are also present in human speech. The dark bands in a human voiceprint represent sounds that have the acoustic characteristics of vowels, as is illustrated in the below voiceprint which depicts the long vowel [a].

Figure 2. A voiceprint of the vowel [a:], as it is pronounced in a syllable pa.

Whenever human beings speak and whenever animals vocalize, pulses of air are produced. It is within these pulses of air that alarm sounds are contained. In linguistic terminology, a pulse of air is referred to as a syllable.

For example, the word “today” contains two syllables, [to] and [day]. The second syllable in the word “today”, [day], embodies two vowels that are next to each other, [a] and [y].

When put together, the combined length of these two vowels is about 0.25 of a second, which is sufficiently long for their combination to constitute an alarm sound. For a sound to be considered an alarm it needs to be long approximately around 0.2 of a seconds or longer, while the combination of [a] and [y] is 0.25 of a second in duration.

1.4. Creating Alarm Sounds by Combining Vowel-Like Sounds.

Sounds which have the acoustic qualities of vowels appear on voiceprints as dark bands. the acoustic vowel sounds are characterised by periodical lines, which appear as vertical lines on the voice print. They can be sub-divided into five categories: vowels, semivowels, diphthongs, nasals and approximates.

Vowels include the sounds: [i], [e], [a], [o] and [u]. Semivowels include the sounds [j] and [w].

Diphthongs include the sounds: [ei], [ai], [oi] and [au].

Nasals include the sounds: [m], [n] and [ng]. Finally, approximants include the sounds [l] and the English [r]. Note that the ‘r’ and ‘w’ sounds have acoustic vowel quality in English, but not necessarily in other languages, eg. Dutch. For explanation between the different pronunciation of [r] sounds see, for instance Catford (1990).

When isolated, some vowels are more than 0.2 of a second in duration, hence they meet the criteria for being considered an alarm sound. For instance, the long vowel [aa] in the Dutch word 'maan' has a duration of about 0.2 of a second.

Secondly, most combinations of diphthongs and vowels result in durations of more than 0.2 of a second. For example, the duration of "ow" (pronounced [au]) in the word “how” is around 0.3 of a second. See for instance Deighton & Koopmans “Aspects of English Vowels”, where they show that [au] is about 288 to 300 ms in length, when produced in an isolated word.

Finally, a combination of two or more sounds that have the acoustic qualities of vowels also result in durations longer than 0.2 of a second. An example of this is the word "on", where the vowel [o] is followed by the nasal [n], or the word "call", where the vowel [a] is followed by the approximant [l]. Another example of a syllable with alarm qualities is the word “why”, which is a single syllabic word and it has a very long vowel quality where it is about 450 milliseconds in duration. The syllable in the word “why” then is perceive as prolonged vowel quality.

PART 2

Alarm Languages

2. Alarm Languages.

All languages contain some alarm sounds within their vocabularies, however they differ according to the number of alarm sounds that they contain and their quality. For example, the duration, the height of pitch and the harshness of the alarm sounds may differ significantly in different languages.

The more pronounced these characteristics are, that is as the duration, pitch and harshness of an alarm sound increase, so does its alarm quality, hence the alarm sound becomes increasingly extreme.

Throughout this book, the languages that contain a large proportion of alarm sounds within their vocabularies will be referred to as “alarm languages”.

Alarm languages are usually structured in one of two ways. The first way closely resembles the structure of the German language, hence will be referred to from now on as the German type alarm structure. The second way resembles the structure of the Chinese language, hence will be referred to from now on as the Chinese type alarm structure.

Additionally, some alarm languages have a structure that does not neatly fall into either the German type or the Chinese type alarm language categories. In such cases the structure of these languages is partially related to either of these categories.

2.1. German Type Alarm Languages.

German type alarm languages are found in many of the westernized countries of the world, such as Germany, Scandinavia, Holland, Belgium, United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and England. Among these languages are the Germanic languages such as English, German, Dutch and Swedish.

Firstly, they distinguish between different lengths of vowels, specifically they make a distinction between short and long vowels. An example of a short vowel is the [a] sound in the Dutch word "man", meaning “man”, and the [aa] sound in the Dutch word “maan”, meaning “moon”. The duration of the vowel [a] is approximately 0.14 of a second and the duration of the vowel [aa] is approximately 0.2 of a second in length (see, for instance Koopmans van-Bainum, 1973). Approximately one in four vowels contained within Germanic languages is long. For example, the average duration of a vowel in the English language is over 0.2 of a second in length.

Secondly, the German language contains within it a number of diphthongs, such as [ai], [oi] and [au], all of which are alarm sounds. In English, the diphthong [ei] is 0.3 of a second in length, hence may be considered an alarm sound. The syllabic structure of the German type alarm languages requires that a vowel follows another sound. Most commonly, the sound that follows a vowel is acoustically similar to a vowel, such as the sounds [n] or [l]

An example of this can be seen in the word “London”, where the vowel [o] is followed two times by a sound that is acoustically similar to a vowel, [n]. In fact, one in three syllables in the most frequently used English words has either a vowel or a diphthong following a nasal sound (such as [m], [n] or [ng]) or the lateral [l].

To demonstrate the frequency and structure of alarm sounds within the English language, the alarm sounds contained within the lexicon of this paragraph are bolded.

The German Language

The German language has some of the most extreme alarm qualities of all Germanic languages. For in In terms of the length of the vowel qualities within the syllables, German language has more prolonged vowel quality then English. The evidence is as follows, firstly in German one pronounces [ei] as [ai], where as in English [ei] or [ai] is pronounced as [ei]. This is an advantage for the German language as [ai] takes longer to produce then [ei]. The reason that it takes longer to produce is because to produce the [a] part of [ai] one needs to open ones mouth more then for [e] part of the [ei] diphthong. Thus because the mouth needs to be more open it takes longer to pronounce the diphthong, see for instance Clark and Yallop (1991) for more details.

Thus in the German if one looks at the first two hundred most frequently used words, Rosengren (1972), then one will see that in the German some 6.5 % of all syllables contain a diphthong with the initial [a] as in [au] or [ai]. While in the English the comparable diphthongs are shortened by being pronounced as [eu] or [ei]. Further the occurrence of diphthongs is higher in German then that for English, and evern higher then for Spanish. For instance of one calculates the percentage of occurrence of diphthongs within each language in relation to other vowels, calculated from IRAL, Vol.11, No2, JULY 1964, the German shows 11.75% of diphthongs, the English 7.9% and the Spanish only 0.35%.

There are other cases where which show that German has more alarm qualities then the English language. In terms of the vowels, the German [a] and [u] letters are pronounced as [a] and [u]. In English on the other hand the letters [a] and [u] are simplified or shortened, and are usually pronounced as [e], and letter “e” is usually pronounced as [i]. This mean that the vowel sounds are shortened in time duration.

Further the German language possesses a more prolonged vowel qualities then English in terms of the long vowels them selves. This has been well demonstrated by Delattre et al (1964). Delattre indicates that the vowel duration can be distinctive (that is it contribute to change the meaning) or non-distinctive (produced instinctively). In English, the difference of duration between the short and long vowel as in “bit” and “beat”, is in a ratio of nearly 2 to 3. Thus if the shorter vowel is about 100 milliseconds then the longer one would be 150 milliseconds (this difference has been observed in stressed syllables). On the other hand in German the difference of the [i] and [ii] duration, in words “bitte” and “biete” is in a ratio of about 2 to 5. This means that if the shorter [i] sound is 100 milliseconds, then the longer [ii] sound is about 250 milliseconds. This is quite a significant length for a [i] sound which is usually very short in most languages which do not have many alarm qualities in their languages. For instance in the Persian language the [i] is about 100 to 110 milliseconds in duration . Also the frequency of the occurrence that these rations occur is more so in German then it is in English or French. That is in German this distinction occurs on seven pairs of vowels while in English only on three. Where as in French there are only on two pairs and its pronounced only by a minority of the population. On the other hand the Spanish and Polish language does not have this distinctiveness difference of vowels at all, as they posses little alarm qualities within their languages.

Yet another reason why the German has more alarm qualities then English is that it has more nasals in the end part of the syllables following the vowel. If one looks at the 200 most frequently used German words one can note that some 29 percent of all the syllables have a N sound following the vowel. Note that by an N or nasal we include all three nasal sounds which are [m], [n] and [ng]. Where as in English the occurrence of the N sounds is somewhere around 20 percent.

Further the German language contains rounded vowels such as [y] as in the word “funf”, and because the roundness is a distinguishable feature, the native speaker of German language produces these rounded vowels longer then the comparable unrounded vowels.

In German the vowels like sounds and sound combinations are produced at a higher pitch. then in most other languages including English. The reason German vowels being pronounced in a hither pitchis that the German contains consonant clusters such as [ts], [sz], [sht] as in “stain”, [tsf] as in “zwei”, and [shf] as in the “schwan”. When therese consonant clusters occour in a syllable before diphthongs, long vowel or vowels followed by a nasal or lateral sound, this causes the increase in the pitch of the produced vowel quality.

The reason that the pitch is hightened is in order to preserve air as the fricative consonant clusters, as in German language, require a lot of lung air to be produced and if they occour in one syllable with a vowel sound(s) that also require a lot of lung air then the organism naturally hightenes the pitch to preserve air.. The only place wehre is can be saved is by producing the vowel like sounds in a hither pitch. This kind of hightened pitch often extends through out the language as it’s a required feature in the language in some of its components.

Thus word such as for instance "schwein" cause the German language to utilise higher pitch more then in other languages such as English.

There is a lot of evidence across languages which shows that the aspirated sounds, which often occour in German, require more air to be produced then unaspirated sounds. For instance In Korean the voiceless unaspirated, tense [p] sound requires only 0.82 airflow rates (in 1/s). Whereas the voiceless heavily aspirated, tense [p] sound requires much more airflow, which is 4.07 air-flow rate (in 1/s). Thus this high air flow of the initial consonant raises the pitch of the vowel that follows it, this occurs in German more so then in English. (there is also a sharper formant structure that occours in the following vowel, as is the case in Korean).

Remember that in nature alarm sounds are produced in higher pitch, thus it is reasonable to assume that if the vowel qualities in a language are produced in a hightened pitch they should be a more intense alarm sound. Thus the syllable ’zwei’ pronounce tsfai in the German language is a very intense alarm sound, and perhaps a more intense alarm sound then any that occurs in English.

3.12 ENGLISH WORLD

English language posses high proportion of alarm sounds and can be considered an alarm language. The features which make English language an alarm language are as follows. Even though there exist variations in the English speaking world, there are between 14 and 16 phonemic vowels of which at least five are long which include [ii], [ee-high], [ee-low], [oo], [uu]. There are also a number of diphthongs such as [ei], [ai], [ou] and [au]. These prolonged vowels and diphthongs go a long way in giving the English language prolonged vowel qualities.

Other features which contribute towards the alarm sounds inclu de vowel like sound combinations. These combinations within syllables include a vowel followed by a nasal. For instance [ng] in “bang” is about 212 ms as shown by Haggard (1986), and together with the preceding vowel go well beyond 300 ms. Moreover there are vowels followed by a lateral [l] sound as can be seen in the words "on" or "call". Where the length of the prolonged vowel quality in that syllable which include sounds [al] approaches 300 ms when produced in isolated words. Thus one can see that the English language contains the prolonged vowel quality.

It is interesting to note here that in its history English lost some of its prolonged vowel quality. For instance old English allowed for initial syllabic clusters to contain [hl] as in “hlaf” meaning "loaf". It also permitted the cluster [hr] as in "hring" meaning "Ring", as was the cluster [kn] as in the word [kniht] meaning "knight". These consonantal clusters caused old English to have a longer vowel qualities produced at slightly higher pitch then the modern English.

3.13 NETHERLANDS WORLD

This small country speaks a very unique alarm language. In that the vowel sound system is quite similar to that of the Ancient Greek, during the Golden age of Athens. The vowel system has short and long vowels. This opposition of long and short vowels is important in the morphology and in the lexicon, for instance "maan" means "moon". The [aa] vowel duration would average approximately 240 ms, which is a very prolonged vowel quality. Where as "man" means "man", and it has relatively short duration. Another example of the vowel length contrast is "veel" meaning "much" and "vel" meaning "skin".

The distinctions between long and short vowels is also maintained in diphthongs, similarly to Ancient Greek(a unique phenomenon in the modern world). That is a word can contain [ai] in a single syllable or it can contain [aai] as well, where the double [aa] represents a long vowel. For instance the word "haai" meaning "shark" contains a prolonged [aa] sound followed by an [i] sound. This creates a very long vowel quality in the syllable.

An example of a diphthong with a short first vowel can be [ei] in "reis" meaning "journey or voyage". One can quite clearly see that Dutch has the alarm qualities within its language. Further the Dutch are produced in higher pitch, for instance Deighton-van Wisten and et al. found that the Dutch vowels are produced consistently at a higher pitch (Pitch is measured in terms of the F0 or fundamental frequency). The Dutch diphthongs are produced at the average F0 of 117 Hz. Which is higher then that for English diphthongs, which are produced at the average F0 of 104 Hz (Note that English vowel qualities are them self produced at relatively high pitch.

2.2. Chinese Type Alarm Languages.

Chinese type alarm languages are found throughout the Far East, in countries such as China, Korea and Vietnam.

They are especially adopted by societies which aspire to the Chinese Confucius model and which employ the Chinese writing system as their principle system of writing.

China has been a great civilization and is about to assume its right position as its language is alarm.

Among the languages that mimic the structure of the Chinese type alarm languages are the major Chinese languages such as Mandarin, Cantonese, Korean and Vietnamese.

Mandarin and other Chinese Dialects

Many of the Chinese type alarm languages are referred to as "syllable specific tonal languages". This is because the pronunciation of vowels within the syllables of these languages impacts the meaning of the words in which these syllables are embedded.

For instance, in Mandarin Chinese, the 'i' sound can have a number of meanings depending on how it is pronounced.

[i] which is pronounced in a high pitched voice means "cloth".
[i] which is pronounced in a rising pitch means "to survive".
[i] which is pronounced in a dipping-rising voice means "chair".
[i] which is pronounced in a falling pitch means "meaning".

The ability of a vowel to impact the meaning of a word depending on how it is pronounced, is an attribute that is unique to Chinese type languages. As a result, the tones contained in Chinese type languages are pronounced longer than the tones contained in non Chinese type languages.

This is because the syllables in Chinese type languages change their meaning depending on how the vowels within them are pronounced. Hence, the tones in Chinese type languages are longer to allow the individual to accurately assess the pronunciation of the vowels.

For instance, when the sound [e] is pronounced in a gradually rising pitch, it has an average length of 0.27 of a second. The Chinese type languages In the Mandarin as in other Chinese type alarm languages the vowel sounds are relatively very long. For instance the mean duration of the [i] sound in Mandarin is around 2.5 of a second while in English it is around 0.17 and in Persian and Spanish just over 0.1 of a second.

The prolonged vowel quality of the Mandarin are longer then that of other oriental tonal languages. For instance in the mandarin [i] sounds are even 270 ms which is longer then in any other languages such as Cantonese which duration is 253 ms.

Additionally, Chinese type alarm languages contain a large number of diphthongs. For instance, Mandarin Chinese contains the diphthongs [ai], [au], [ou], [ai], [ie], [au], [ou] and [ye].

As is the case with vowels, diphthongs in Chinese type alarm languages are longer in duration than the diphthongs in other languages. This is because the tonal distinction between the diphthongs in Chinese type alarm languages impact the meaning of words within which they are embedded, hence they are pronounced longer to allow for an accurate recognition of their pronunciation.

Additionally, Chinese type alarm languages allow nasals to follow vowels, which further increases the duration of the vowel type sounds that are contained in their languages, increasing their alarm quality.

Mandarin posses other specific characteristics that makes the prolonged vowel qualities be produced in extreme high pitch One of the features is that because the vovel duration is correlated with the pitch(F0), see Kong(1987), thus because the Mandarin has extremely long vowels thus these vowels are produced at extremely high pitch.Tthis heightened pitch occurs in all the Oriental tonal languages, however more so in Mandarin as mandarin has longer vowels.

Another feature which causes the Mandarin to have vowels pronouced at hightened pitch are the unique initial consonants that the Mandarin has. As mentioned in the case of German sounds like [sh], [ts] “schwein” pronounced as [shfain], and as in the word zwei pronounced [tsfai] aid in increasing the pitch of the vowels. Mandarin also have initial consonants which require a lot of air to be produced. In the pinjin (written in Roman numerals) [sh] is written as [sh] and [ts] is written as [z]. As in the words “shi” with the rising tone meaning “be” or “is”, and in the word “zai” with falling tone “again” or “at”.

In addition in Mandarin posseses more of the consonants that require a lot of air to be produced then the German. These sounds include [tsz] as in polish “tszeba” pronounced [tszeba], and [tŠ] as in the polish word “cicho” pronounced as [tŠiho]. These types of consonants require a lot of air to be produced, when placed before prolonged vowel qualities(which does not happen in Polish).

Thus Mandarin has the initial unaspirated consonant such as [tsz] and its aspirated pair is [tszh]. This aspirated pair requires even more air to be produced then the unaspirated one. Where these unaspirated consonants (especially the fricatives) cause the speakers to produce vowels in higher pitch then they would otherwise. Note that these aspirated consonants occur frequently within the Mandarin language. Often the most frequently used words begin with such aspirated consonants. For instance words such as “chang” where there is a rising pitch on the vowel [a] where the word is pronounced as “tshang”. Thus Mandarin speakers produce even longer prolonged vowel quality at ever higher pitch, then other oriental speakers.

Further all the Mandarin consonants are voiceless, as aspirated consonants are also voiceless, thus this cause a higher pitch in the vowel following these consonants. It had been well documented that voiceless consonants cause the following vowel to be produced in higher pitch then if the consonant has been voiced.

Further it has been shown that this higher FO occurs even to a larger extent after aspirated sounds. Such as [Ph] (see Korean later on in the chapter for details). Thus in the Chinese Mandarin the consonants preceding the vowels are all voiceless, where almost half of them are aspirated. This makes the language contain vowels with even higher pitch.

In the Mandarin Chinese all four tones that are present in the vowels are always in touch with the high pitch. That is there is no low tone as in many other tonal languages. Where the falling tone, at the beginning is high and then it falls. The rising tone is high at the end. The dipping tone is quite hight at the beginning and especially at the end, whereas the high tone is always.

4.12 VIETNAMESE

Vietnam language contains many alarm sounds as Vietnamese has many long vowel. It has 6 tones which cause the vowels to be pronounced longer in order to distinguish among the tones as the tones cause differentiation between the meaning. The vowel long quality is further assisted by the presence of diphthongs such as ai and au. The presence of nasal sounds following the vowels is another structure which aid in making the vowel type sounds in syllables longer .

4.13 THAI LANGUAGE

Thailand is an ancient civilisation, it is a country which is a mixture of the Indian and Chinese culture. One could say that its a unique civilisation by it self. Thai language has many alarm qualities in its syllable structure. The features that make the Thai language an alarm language include firstly the distinction between long and short vowels. The long vowel prolonged the vowel quality of the language. There is also syllable specific tones, as in other oriental languages. These tones are located on the long vowels. Thus for instance the mean duration of the long vowel [ii] with the rising pitch is 245 ms, a prolonged vowel quality by any standards.

There are also a number of diphthongs which help to prolong the vowel quality of the Thai language. These include [iia], [uua] and [iia]. Further there are vowels followed by the nasal sounds. The pith of the vowel are also raised, this is caused by the initial clusters which often are aspirated. These clusters and aspirated consonants raise the pitch of the following prolonged vowel qualities.

However Thai language has shorter vowel qualities then other Oriental tonal languages. For instance in Thai language only the long vowels use tones. What this means is that because the short vowels do not have tones these short vowels are quite short. Half of all of the Thai vowels are quite short. For instance the single vowel [e] without a tone is only 0.06 of a second in duration in connected speech. While the geminate vowel [ii] with a rising pitch has a duration of 0.245 of a second.. Further some long vowels do not have tones, and these sounds are shorter then the ones which have the tones. For instance the double geminate [ii] without a tone is 140 ms duration. And this duration is significantly shorter then that of the [ii] sound with the rising pitch which has 245 ms. The Thai in addition has less diphthongs then other Chinese type alarm languages such as Mandarin.

It can be said that the Thai language has significantly shorter vowels in comparison to other Oriental tonal languages such as Mandarin, however Thai language does posses many alarm sounds within its language and can be considered as an alarm language.

4.14 JAPANESE

Japanese is an alarm language however it achives the alarm qualities in a slighly different way then the other Chinese type alarm languages. That is fear is achieved through more intense production of the vowels. The vowels are shorter, however they require just as much air as the long vowels, however the air is expelled in a shorter period of time.

Short vowel sounds that require a lot of air to be produced represent alarm sounds right throughout the animal kingdom. This type of sounds relate to a frightened animal which is in the defence of its child. In the prolonged vowel quality sound, the animal is frightened for its own life.

Japanese has a higher subglottal pressure and larger air release at high frequency in their vowel sounds. For instance [u] in “susu” is 70 ms when voiced and 85 ms when whispered. However a lot of air goes out without actually making the sounds very loud. This can be perceived in the Japanese by foreigners, who when mimicking the sounds of the Japanese make very intense vowels sounds where a lot of air is released.

The Japanese vowels are also produced in very high pitch, which is an advantage. For instance Rigault in “ Voiceless vowels and whispered speech in Japanese” analyses voiceless vowels which are frequent in the Japanese. In these voiceless vowels the vocal chords are more open thus letting out more air. Not only that but these sounds are produced at very high pitch or fundamental frequency. Sugito (1969) has pointed out, that in a word like “kusa” in which [u] is voiceless. The fundamental frequency of [a] starts high at about 300 cycles per second (C/S).

2.3. Other Alarm Languages.

There are number of languages that does not neatly fall into either the German type or the Chinese type category of alarm languages are languages such as French and Finish. Finish creates the alarm qualities by the following features. It makes use of the distinction between long and short vowel sounds and makes frequent use of diphthongs.

Another alarm language which neither falls into the Chinese type or the German type category of alarm languages is French.

3.31 FRENCH

The alarm signals contained in the French language are very unique. This is because the French language makes a distinction between common vowels and vowels which are nasal. Nasal vowels are produced when a little bit of air reaches the nasal cavity. This process makes nasal vowels longer than most of the other vowels in the French language. For instance, the word “ose” contains a nasal vowel [o], that has a duration of about 0.25 of a second. Approximately fifteen percent of all French vowels are nasal. Additionally, approximately five percent of all French vowels are round. Round vowels require the lips to adopt a rounded shape. The duration of round vowels is even longer than the duration of nasals.

In addition to round vowels and nasal vowels, French embodies a large number of diphthongs and triphthongs, which are also alarm sounds. Triphthongs are combinations of three adjoining vowels within one syllable, as is the case in the word “vieille”, pronounced [vjej].

Alarm qualities which made French into an alarm language can be traced in its history and this development is most interesting when compared to other languages such as Italian and Spanish that also originated from Latin.

Over the centuries French it had a very strong tendency in non learned words to monosyllabism. Which meant that words which have more then one syllables tend to be pronounced as a single syllabic word. Note that where there are less syllables there usually are more prolonged vowels. This tendency to monosyllabism assisted French in extending the duration of the vowel like sounds.

The other Latin languages tended to shorten the syllables while usually maintaining the same number of the syllables. For instance, by looking how the three syllabic Latin word "populum" has been adopted, one can see that in French this word is written as "peuple" and its pronounced as [poepl]ntains prolonged vowel quality). On the other hand in Italian it is pronounced "popolo".

Another method to see whether a language tends to monosyllabise the words is tho look at the most frequently used words. If one compares the number of syllables in French, Italian and Spanish in terms of the two hundred most frequently used words then one can see the difference clearly. In Spanish these two hundred words are constructed of some 381 syllables, Italian of some 397 syllables, and French of only 295 syllables. Juilland et al (1993) word frequency list were used for calculations.

French language has a wide range of diphthongs and triphthongs incorporating the semi-vowels [w] [j]. For instance there is a triphthong as in the word “vieille” pronounced as [vjej]. Thus this word has the prolonged vowel quality. The diphthongs with the [w] sound is as in the word “jouer” pronounced as [dzwe]. There are other such diphthongs where the sylllable ends in a nasal or lateral sound as in the word “cjel” pronounced as [sjel]. (Note however that French does not have the common diphthongs such as [ai], [oi], [au]. Thus one can note that there is a lot of prolonged vowel qualities in French.

Further French vowel system is quite complex, the vowel phonemes that French has, includes:

-[a] as in the word “patte” pronounced as [pat].

-[a ] as in the word “pate” pronounced as [pat]

-[e] as in the word “parler” pronounced as [parle]

-[ε]as in the word “frais” pronounced as [fiε]

-[i] as in the word “benir” pronounced as [benir]

-[o] as in the word “fort” pronounced as [for]

-[o] as in the word “boxe” pronounced as [boks]

-[u] as in the word “vous” pronounced as [vu]

-[y] as in the word “tu” pronounced as [ty]

-[œ] as in the word “jeune” pronounced as [dzœn]

-[Ø]as in the word “bleu” pronounced as [blØ]

-[∂] as in the word “premier” pronounced as [pr∂mje]

-[(∂)] as in the word “acheter” pronounced as [ash(∂)te], where the [∂] can be omitted.

The nasal vowels include:

-[a] as in the word “temps” pronounced as [ta]

-[ε] as in the word “fin” pronounced as [fε]

-[o] as in the word “bon” pronounced as [bo]

-[œ] as in the word “un” pronounced as [œ]

Through the very fact that there are so many vowels it causes the speaker to produce them with a slightly longer duration in order to make them more distinctive for perception. Especially the rounded vowels are slightly longer then other oral vowels, as nasal quality of the vowel must be longer presented to be perceived. If one takes the first two hundred most frequently uses word from the list by Juilland et al (1993) for instance one will find that some 5% of all the syllables have rounded vowel. There are also some 3% long vowels.

Further French has the nasal vowels. The nasal vowels are longer because of the physiology of their production. The nasalised vowel constitute somewhere about 15% of all the vowel frequency of occurrence. Delattre & Monnet (1968) have nicely shown that they are longer then the other oral vowels. For instance in the word “ose” which the [o] is not nasal and its stressed, the duration is about 190 ms(a quite long vowel quality in itself). On the other hand an exactly the same pronounced word except where the sound is nasal is the word ‘once’, where the stress also falls on the [o] sound, the duration is 250 ms. Below is an example of the length of the [e] sounds where one is nasal and the other is oral. The spectrogram shows an approximation of the formants, where one can see that the nasal vowel is significantly longer then the oral one. The nasal sound comes form the word “cinq” in a continues speech while the oral one came form the word “sec”.

It is interesting and perhaps very important to note here that had the French adopted as their national language the dialect of north France called “Francien”. However another dialect, such as a southern dialect called "Franco Proncal" as the national language. A language which possesses far less the prolonged vowel qualities. Then France would never have been as important a country as it has, and one can only speculate what would have happened in the European history.

Finally, another alarm language which neither belongs to the Chinese type or the German type category of alarm languages is Thai. Thai language combines long vowels and tones to create alarm sounds. For instance, the long vowel [ii], when spoken in a rising pitch, is 0.245 seconds long. Thai also has diphthongs such as [ai] and [ua], and a diphthong where a round [i] is followed by the [a] sound.

2.4. Differences in Intensity of Alarm Languages.

In the previous section, we’ve classified various languages according to their structure, hence according to whether they belonged to a “German type”, “Chinese type” or “Other type” categories. In addition to having different structures, alarm languages also vary in intensity. As the duration and pitch of the alarm sounds embedded within a language increase, so does the alarm quality of this language.

In the sections to come, I will be demonstrating that those societies which communicate using intense alarm languages should be more economically advanced/competitive than the societies which communicate using less intense alarm languages. To demonstrate this difference in intensity of the various alarm languages, lets briefly compare the intensity of the English, Chinese Mandarin and German languages.

German has more alarm qualities than English. The long vowels and diphthongs in German are much longer then those in English. Additionally, the vowel type sounds in the German language are produced at a higher pitch then those in the English language. This is because the vowels

in the German language are often preceded by consonant clusters, which require a lot of air to be produced. An example of this is the consonant cluster [tsf] in the word “zwei”, pronounced [tsfai]. This causes a natural increase in the pitch of [ai], which reduces the amount of air that needs to be let out to vocalize it.

.5. Partial Alarm Languages.

So far we have described alarm languages, in terms of their different structures and different levels of intensity. Apart from alarm languages such as German and Chinese, there exist other languages, such as Italian and Czech, that may be classified as partial alarm languages. Partial alarm languages embody some alarm qualities, yet they do not contain enough alarm sounds to be fully considered alarm languages.

Italian is one such language. The Italian language contains two long vowels, [ee] and [oo], and accents those syllables which contain these vowels. Additionally, although the presence of diphthongs in the Italian language is quite rare, when they do occur, diphthongs are relatively long and stressed. For example, the diphthong [ja] has a duration of approximately 0.26 of a second.

Another language that contains a large amount of alarm sounds, yet not enough to be considered an alarm language, is Czech. Czech contains short and long vowels which include: [i], [ii], [e], [ee], [a], [aa], [o], [oo], [u], [uu], [y] and [yy]. The Czech language acknowledges the differences between short and long vowels only in the case of declensions, where the use of either short or long vowels can impact the grammatical properties of the words. For example, “Konova” is a surname of a woman who is not married, because the [a] sound at the end of this word is a short vowel. On the other hand, in the case where the vowel at the end of this word is pronounced as long, a married status is implied. Hence, in the Czech language, the occurrence of long vowels is not as prominent as in some other languages, such as the German type languages.

2.6. Non Alarm Languages.

Those languages which do not belong to the categories of alarm languages and partial alarm languages are referred to here as the non alarm languages. Non alarm languages contain only a small amount of alarm sounds. Virtually all of the languages in the Indian Subcontinent, the Arabic Middle East, Turkish Asia, Latin America, Oceanic Islands and most areas of Africa are non alarm languages.

Interestingly, most of the societies which communicate using non alarm languages are either economically undeveloped or are struggling to develop economically.

To demonstrate that in non alarm languages the frequency of alarm sounds is rare, the alarm sounds contained in the following paragraph in the Farsi language (Persian) will be bolded.

3.32 SPANISH WORLD

The next countries that are analysed, are the countries which speak Spanish. This language is the national language of some nineteen countries, and the interesting thing to note is that all these countries since the WW2 have been relatively economically undeveloped. (the second world war is used as the beginning of comparison because since that time there are very good statistics on economical issues and most countries had access to western technologies, so they could have had excellent progress in that 50 years). Thus according to the theory proposed in this book because the Spanish speaking world is poorly developed economically their language should not posses the prolonged vowel qualities. Closer analysis show that to be the case. Thus further supporting the theory that the prolonged vowel quality is the essential feature for a society to become economically developed.

The evidence is quite clear, Spanish has only the basic five vowels [i] [e] [a] [o] [u]. Spanish has almost no diphthongs. Where diphthongs mean two vowels produced with a single pulse of air, and where there is only one intensity. In Spanish there are many vowels next to each other, for instance [ai], [au], [ei], [eu], [ia], [io], [iu], [ua], [ue], [ui], [uo] there is 18 in total of such combinations. However these combinations are not diphthongs as they are pronounced separately, or some sounds are simplified to a single vowel. Thus what often happens is the first vowel is pronounced first, then the second, where each of the two vowels have their own intensity peaks.

In fact in Spanish there is only three diphthongs. But the occurrence of these diphthongs is almost nonexistent, it is somewhere around 0.45 of one percent. That is a diphthong comparatively to the other vowels occurs less then one in 200. When one compares that to the German diphthong which occur one in six syllables, then the diphthongs in Spanish are indeed rare. These diphthongs do not contribute in any significant was to the prolongation of vowels in the language. (See Delattre (1964) for details of Spanish diphthongs and vowels).

It is also important to note that Spanish has only a rare occurrence of the vowel like sounds combinations. Such as a vowel followed by a lateral or a nasal sound. Thus they do not have this component which prolongs their vowel quality. Of course there are a few words with syllables containing a vowel followed by a nasal [N] or a lateral [l]. For instance if one takes a look at the 200 most frequently used words in Spanish, a list constructed by Juilland (1993) one will note that there are some 40 syllables out of 381 where there is a nasal following a vowel within the syllables. Which constitutes 10.5 % of the syllables. The [l] sound following a vowel occurs in some 2.6 % of the syllables. Now by themselves these laterals and nasals do not make the language posses prolonged vowel qualities in any great extent. Certainly when in comparison to the German or English language.

When looking at the vowel length alone Spanish has relatively short vowel qualities. When comparing to English and Persian, then English has significantly longer vowel duration. Zimmerman & Sapon (1957) showed that the mean duration of the stressed vowel [i] when followed by a consonant is significantly longer in the English language then the Spanish language. That is speakers of Spanish articulating a word with an [i] sound produce that [i] sound shorter then would an English speaker, below there is also the production average of the [i] sound by the Persian speaker.

Duration in ms

200

150

100

English Spanish Persian

Speakers of languages

The above Graph.1 shows that the English speakers produce the [i] sounds with the longest duration while the duration produced by the Spanish and Persian speakers is significantly shorter. Thus many people in the Spanish speaking world, or Persian for that matter, leave in poverty because their language do not posses the prolonged vowel qualities. It is interesting to note that between early and modern Spanish there has been a loss of long [e] and long [o] vowels. Where for instance in Northern Spain there were long [e] and [o] which used to became diphthongs where they were stressed. These long vowels together with the diphthong prolongation were lost. Thus sometime in the past the Spaniards lost some of their prolonged vowel qualities. This suggests that they are slightly capable economically then they used to be.

The next major romance language is Portuguese. This is the national language of Brazil and of course of Portugal. Portuguese in writing appears to have a very complex vowel and diphthong system. However much of the pronunciation of the Portuguese language is simplified. Thus when it comes to the prolonged vowel quality it is similar to that of the Spanish language.

3.2 THE SLAVIC WORLD

All Slavic languages posses relatively short vowel qualities when in comparison to Germanic languages. The Slavic country which posses the most prolonged vowel quality is the Czech republic. and this at the same time makes them perform better economically. The main Slavic language, that is the one spoken by the largest number of people is Russian. Then there ore others such as Polish, Serbo-Croatian, Check and Slovakian.

3.21 RUSSIAN AND POLISH

Polish, a language which is similar to Russian in terms of the vowel qualities, contains the basic five short vowels [i], [e], [a], [o], [u]. There are also two nasal vowels [e] and [o] which are written as [e] and [a](Not found in Russian). In the Polish the sound combination of a vowel followed by nasal sound was replaces by the nasal vowel. In such a case one actually replaces a more prolonged vowel quality with a less prolonged vowel quality. Thus reducing the overall prolonged vowel quality of that language.

The Polish language syllabic structure is such that there are relatively a small number of syllables where a vowel is followed by a nasal or a lateral. In fact the occurrence of the nasal followed by vowel in the syllables of the Polish is only 2.9% of the times. As calculated from the first 200 most frequent words in the polish language, using the list constructed by Kurcz et al.(1977). The occurrence of syllables where the lateral follows the vowel is only about 1.9% of the time. The occurrence of diphthongs is also 1.9% of the times, such as [ei], [ai], [au], [ou] is somewhere in the vicinity of 1.6% of the time. Further vowel qualities such as [j], [w], [l] [n] or [m], as [mo] in the word “smoke” occurs 7.2% of the time. On top of that the word tend to be more multisyllabic thus reducing the length of the vowels as can be seen from Richter (1972), and by looking at the first 200 most frequently used words which are made up of some 377 syllables as comparing to German which are made of some 305.

Thus on the whole there are relatively small number of prolonged vowel qualities when in comparison to a language such as German. In addition, the study by Richter (1972) shows that the mean duration of the Polish vowels is short, about the length of the Spanish or Persian. Where for instance the duration of the [i] vowel in a two syllabic word is only 78 ms, and in a monosyllabic its 119 ms. The other vowel’s duration is not much longer then that of [i]. Where the mean length of the longest vowel when produced in a two syllabic word is /a/ and its still 124 ms in length. Which is significantly shorter then the same vowel in any of the Germanic languages.

The Polish language tends to have open syllabic structure, that is the syllable usually ends in a vowel. This usually reduces the prolonged vowel qualities of the language, as there is less laterals or nasal sounds at the end of the syllables. There is also less diphthongs at the end of the syllables. In Germanic languages this is the case, evidence can be seen by looking at the word frequency where for instance in American English where the first 200 most frequent words all words contain syllables which posses a middle vowel followed by another sound. Where the second sound could have been a consonant or a second vowel of the diphthong.

This syllabic structure where there are the three main sounds in the syllable CVC or CVV causes the remaining shorter syllables to be prolonged to be similar in length to what the common syllabic length is. Thus if the above syllabic structure predominates, then there is a tendency to pronounce the V in CV as a long vowel or at least longer vowel. In order for the CV syllable is similar length as is CVC syllable. Thus this prolongation occurs more in the speech of a native speaker, for instance German speaker (more so then a foreigner who learns German as a second language at an older age).

The Slavic languages tend to have multisyllabic words, this best illustrated by counting the syllables in the most frequently used word, and in the 200 most frequently used words there are some 377 syllables in Polish, as opposed to 242 in English, and some 305 in German. What happens in multisyllablic sentences is that the syllables are shortened, and at the same time the vowel qualities of these syllables are shortened as well. Thus in Germanic languages words tend to be monosyllabic while in the Slavic languages words tend to be multisyllabic.

Indonesian and Philipino

Asian South Pacific region there are countries in which the majority of people have Mongoloid physical characteristics, as for instance Philippines. However they do not have an oriental tonal language as their first language. They tend to speak a Filipino language which is a Malayan language. These languages do not have the prolonged vowel qualities. Thus the Filipino people are poor and they will not become economically developed.

Indonesia is another country where the majority of the people do not speak a tonal oriental language. Indonesian shows very little prolonged vowel qualities in the language. For instance there are only short vowels such as [y], [I], [e], [ε], [a], [o], [u], [w]. There are no diphthongs. The syllables are usually open and there is only slight prolongation of the vowel quality because nasals sometimes follows the vowel within a syllable. Racially however the people of Indonesia and Malaysia are quite similar to other countries speaking tonal languages such as Vietnamese for instance.

However because the Indonesians speak a language which does not posses the prolonged vowel quality the Indonesian society is and will be poor. They will also be easily dominated by other people who speak a language with more prolonged vowel qualities. This appears to be the case that is in Indonesia there are 3% ethnic Chinese who speak a language with far more prolonged vowel quality. Because of this superior motivation caused by the prolonged vowel quality, the ethnic Chinese control 70% of Indonesian economy. In Malaysia the ethnic Chinese control almost totally the Malaysian economy where they constitute some 30% of the population. However had the ethnic Malay people of Indonesia and Malaysia spoke a language with prolonged vowel quality such as in Mandarin, then Indonesia and Malaysia would control their own economy. Where they would be among the richest and highly developed countries in the world.

Arabic and Hebrew

The Arabic world includes countries which have Arabic language as their official language. These countries include countries like Egypt, Sudan, Libya, Tunisia, Morocco, Algeria, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Jordan. One needs to add the gulf countries such as Quait or and UAE. By looking at these countries all, but oil possessing countries, are poor and economically undeveloped. Even oil reach Arabic countries such as Saudi Arabia are incapable to develop and efficient maintain an industrial base for their country, as they are economically uncompetitive. According to the theory proposed in this book, because these countries are poor and not progressing in their development. The languages that they speak should not posses the prolonged vowel qualities.

The Arabic countries clearly support the theory as the Arabic language do not posses the prolonged vowel qualities. The Arabic vowels firstly have the classical triangular system which consists of [i] [a] [u] many dialects developed other vowels for instance [e] [e] [o]. Diphthongs are almost nonexistent. The combinations of vowel like sounds is such that there are relatively few words where a vowel is followed by a nasal or a lateral sound within a single syllable. Also the syllabic structure is CV, reducing the tendency to have prolonged vowel quality. The words are primarily multisyllabic which also shortens the vowel quality. There are long vowels such as [ii] [aa] and [uu], however these long vowels are not very common, no existent in some dialects. And by them self they are unable to make Arabic a language with the prolonged vowel quality. Thus in comparison to a language such as Mandarin it has extremely short vowel qualities.

4.22 HEBREW WORLD

The Hebrew language is the official language of the state of Israel. Hebrew do not contains the prolonged vowel qualities. In Hebrew there is no vowel length distinction thus there are no long vowels. The vowel like sound combinations which prolongs the vowel quality is rare. That is there are relatively few syllables where a vowel is followed by a nasal or lateral sound. Because Hebrew language does not contain the prolonged vowel quality the Israel state, without the external financial help, will be struggling economically. Further it will never become economically developed to a high level as for instance Denmark is. Interestingly had the Israel state adopted Yiddish language as their national language, then they would have had a highly developed economy and would have been one of the major financial centres of the world.

4.3 BLACK AFRICAN WORLD

In analysing the black African countries one can see that these countries are very poor and these countries are nowhere near to becoming economically developed. The exceptions of course are the countries which were developed and were runned by the Germanic people such as in South Africa. According to the theory proposed in this book one should expect that none of these black countries languages posses the prolonged vowel qualities. Where indeed this is the case. We will analyse few of the languages of the subsuharan region. Where the main language groups include the native Chadic languages and the Niger Cardofamian languages.

4.31 YARUBA WORLD

One of the major languages spoken in Nigeria, is Yoruba language. This is the language of a lot of slaves who were taken to the new world, especially the Americas. The Yaruba language, as predicted by the theory does not posses the prolonged vowel qualities. It has seven basic vowels which includes:

[i] [e] [e] [a] [o] [o] [u]

Of which vowels none are prolonged. In this language when a vowel is followed by a nasal sound, the vowel is nasalised and the nasal [n] sound is not pronounced, thus not prolonging the vowel quality of that language. Like most African languages, the syllables are open, and words tend to by multi-syllabic thus having shorter vowel qualities.

4.32 BANTU (SWAHILI) WORLD

The other major group of languages in the sub Sahara region are the Bantu languages. The major Bantu language is Swahili. This language contains seven vowels similar to that of the just mentioned Yoruba language. Swahili lost its vowel length distinction, thus there are no long vowels. Secondly in the Swahili language like in the Yoruba language the nasal, following the vowel within the syllable is not pronounced instead the vowel is pronounced as a nasal vowel. Further one should note that the Swahili language is not a tonal language but has a stress on the penultimate syllable of the word. Thus there is almost non prolonged vowel qualities in the language.

4.41 HINDI WORLD

Some of the undeveloped areas of the world are inhabited by people who speak any of the Indo European languages. One of these Indo European languages is Hindi. The Hindi language is spoken by a significant proportion of the Indian population Where it is the official language of many Indian states. According to the discovery proposed in this book, because the areas in which people speak Hindi are poor, then Hindi language should not posses the "prolonged vowel quality. A closer analyses again proves the theory to be right.

The phonological analysis of that language shows that Hindi has a relatively small number of syllables with the prolonged vowel qualities. The Hindi vowels have no long short distinction. Further there is very few vowel followed by laterals or nasals. Thus Hindi language does not posses the prolonged vowel qualities, and this is the reason why it cannot become developed.

4.42 PERSIAN WORLD

Persian is another language which does not posses the prolonged vowel qualities. The evidence that its vowels are short, has been shown in a study by Strain (1969). Where he showed that the average overall duration of vowels such as [e, , u o I] is only 100 to 110 ms. Where as the remaining vowels, [a, ey, ow] is around 160 ms in length. These vowel duration’s or lengths are significantly shorter then that for the English language, as shown by Delattre(1964). And there are very few other vowel prolongation’s such as vowels followed by nasals or laterals. Thus Persian language does not posses the prolonged vowels qualities, and this is the reason why these societies will not become economically developed.

There are many other societies which do not a language with the prolonged vowel qualities, it is impossible to mention them all here. Because they do not speak languages with the prolonged vowel qualities thus they are not able to become economically developed. However if they adopt a language with prolonged vowel qualities, then in relatively short time these countries will become economically developed.

PART 3

Alarm Languages and Ancient Civilizations

2.7. Ancient Greece and Rome - their Use of Alarm Languages.

Many ancient civilizations communicated using alarm languages. Among these were the Ancient Greek and Ancient Roman civilizations. As the structure of the alarm languages in ancient Greece and ancient Rome got gradually transformed to embody fewer alarm qualities, these civilizations underwent economic declines, which over time led to their collapse.

Attic was the principal language in Athens during the golden ages of ancient Greece, in the 5th century BC. Attic was an alarm language. It contained long vowels and diphthongs. The long vowels included [ii], [yy], [ee], [aa], [oo], and a long, round [oo]. The diphthongs included [ai], [eu], [yi], [oi] and [au].

Attic also contained diphthongs which had the first vowel long, these included [eei], [eeu], [aai] and [ooi]. These are intense alarm sounds. Additionally, many of the syllables contained in Attic contained vowels that were followed by lateral [l] or nasal [N] sounds. For example, the Attic word “alpha” combines [a] with the lateral [l], within a single syllable.

The great philosoper Aristotle who was also a teacher of alexander the great.

The economic downfall of Athens took place at the same time as its principle language, Attic, was loosing its alarm qualities. Attic began to change in the 4th century BC, following the conquests of Alexander the Great. These conquests transformed the makeup of the Greek population, both within the territories of Greece proper and within the new colonies in the Middle East.

At the same time, Greece witnessed an influx of various populations into its borders. In response to these events, the structure of the Attic language changed dramatically because many foreign words entered its vocabulary. As a result, the lengths of the various vowels in Attic failed to be distinguished, thus the vowels became uniformly short in length and the long vowels were no longer utilized. With time, the diphthongs in the Attic language became replaced by single sounds, hence they too eventually perished. For example, the diphthong [yi] became replaced by [i], a single, short sound. Furthermore, the combinations of vowels followed by the nasal [N] or the lateral [l], within single syllables, also disappeared.The language also lost its heightened pitch because it lost the aspirated plosives [ph], [th] and [kh]. During that same period of the fall of the Greek Empire, the heightened pitch was automatically lost as the prolonged vowel quality shortened. Remember that the consonant clusters which require a lot of breath to be produced and the prolonged vowel quality, which require a lot of air to be produced, are both required for the vowel quality to be produced at a higher pitch. Thus when the prolonged vowel quality was lost, then the person does not need to save breath within a syllable and thus the vowel pitch is lowered. The lowering of the pitch was further aided by the loss of aspirated plosives such as [ph], [th] and [kh]. Especially by the loss of consonantal clusters such as [phm] for instance.

Thus, the alarm language that was spoken during the golden ages of Greece lost its alarm qualities at the exact same time as Greece underwent its economic decline.

Interestingly not only did Attic language had the prolonged vowel quality cause by the [l] or [n] sound following the vowel within a syllable. There were the lateral or nasal sounds preceding the vowels. For instance one could have initial consonantal clusters such as [phm] followed by a vowel. Where [m] and the vowel that followed it constituted a prolonged vowel quality (and as will be seen later on it also increase the hight of the pitch of these vowel qualities, which is also very desirable). A lateral sound was also followed by a vowel as in the case of the word "Plato" where we have [la] combination followed by the initial [p] consonant this further enhances the prolonged vowel quality . Thus as one can see the Attic certainly contained prolonged vowel qualities within its syllables.

2.12 PITCH HEIGHTENING IN ATTIC

Not only did the Attic language contain the prolonged vowel quality as was shown above, but this language also contained relatively heightened pitch(a desirable characteristic as will be explained in Ch.5). That is the vowels within that language were produced in higher pitch then in many other languages. The pronunciation of the vowel in higher pitch was largely caused by the type of the consonants and consonant clusters that precede the prolonged vowels within the syllables of that language. The pitch was also slightly heightened, though to a lesser extend, by the consonants that follow the vowel within the syllable, this concept will be discussed in the following chapter. The consonants and consonant clusters which caused the Ancient Greek speaker to pronounce the vowels in higher pitch were initial aspirated plosives, such as [ph], [th], [kh]. The pitch was further enhanced by consonantal clusters such as [ks], [ps], [thm], [tl], [khm].

These consonants and consonantal cluster when in the initial position of a syllable and before a long vowel or a diphthong caused the speaker to produce the vowel in higher pitch. This is because of one important factor that has to do with the limited breathing capacity that we have. That is because a consonant cluster such as [ps] releases to much air, then breath has to be save somewhere. And this saving occurs in the vowel sounds of that syllable. That is for instance the sounds [an] are then produces with less air (as to much air was lost in the production of the initial consonants).

In such a situation what a person automatically does is he saves the air required during the production of the vowel quality part of the syllable, which in our case is [an]. And the only way to do save air is to let out less air through the larynx (glottis) when producing the vowel quality sounds of that syllable. In turn when one lets less air out this automatically increases the height the pitch of the vowel quality sounds in that syllable. Note that most consonants and consonantal clusters do not require such a large amount of air for it to create a need for preserving the air during the vowel part of the syllable. For instance [tr] does not require as much air as the [tsf] cluster as in the German word “zwei” word.

It is also interesting to note that heightened pitch was slightly increased by the fact that the accentual system was based on pitch accent. This accentual system consisted of three types of pitch accents, the high pitch, the low pitch and the contour pitch (which consisted of a high plus a low pitch on the same syllable, and it occurred only on long vowels or diphthongs). Note that at most one high pitch, either the high or the contour occurred per word, all non high syllables were low pitch. Thus one can assume that if a prolonged vowel quality had the high accent it further increased the intensity and the pitch of the sound. Thus the ancient Greek not only possessed the prolonged vowel qualities but also heightened pitch.

A similar turn of events took place in Ancient Rome. The principle language of Rome throughout its golden ages (150 BC-AD 150) was Latin. Latin was an alarm language, containing many vowels and diphthongs. The vowels contained in the Latin language were as follows: [i], [ii], [e], [ee], [a], [aa], [o], [oo], [u] and [uu] and the diphthongs in the Latin language included: [ai], [au] and [ui].

In addition to having many vowels and diphthongs, the syllables in the Latin language were comprised of vowels which were followed either by the lateral [l] or the nasal [N]. When the makeup of the Roman population was transformed because of the influx of immigrants into Rome, the structure of Rome's principle language rapidly changed. Its alarm quality was lost.

For example, the diphthongs which were once used were transformed into vowels, while the use of long vowels was markedly restricted to only a few instances. Hence, the sound combinations which comprised the alarm qualities of ancient Latin were gradually replaced by simplified, non alarm sounds.

2.7. Other Ancient Civilizations and their Use of Alarm Languages.

It is possible that other famous civilization, such as Ancient Indians, Egyptians, the Aztecs, communicated using alarm languages. It is also possible that these civilizations which experienced rapid economic declines and downfalls experienced similar transformations in the structure of their languages, so that the alarm sounds which may have been present at the height of their development were gradually replaced by non alarm sounds.

2.81 The ancient indian civilization

The term Sanskrit comes from the word “samskrta” which means adorned or purified. Sanskrit refers to several varieties of the Old Indo Aryan languages. And these were the languages of the ancient Indian civilisation. The people that brought the world Buddist and Hindu religion, the numerical system, as well as some of the great arts and philosophy. The texts that they left are the attestation to the civilisation that existed under the Sanskrit era. Some of these texts include things like detailed and speculative works as well as texts concerning the performance of rites called “Kalpa” or “Srauta-sutras”(note that these words themselves appear, and indeed do have the prolonged vowel qualities). Other texts are treaties on phonetics, grammar and there are explanations of particular words, metrics as well as astrology. It is also the language of various technical works as well as various grammatical, philosophical, dramatic and poetic works.

According to the theory proposed in this book Sanskrit as spoken by these ancient peoples should posses the prolonged vowel qualities. In fact this is clearly the case with the Sanskrit languages. That is Sanskrit possesses the prolonged vowel qualities, as the language has length vowel distinction. Where long [i], [a] and [u] vowels are present. The language also possessed two diphthongs [oi] and [au]. The prolonged vowel qualities in Sanskrit was aided, by the fact that there were specific sound combinations. Such as vowels followed by nasals as [un] in the word "Sanskrit". There were vowels followed by laterals as for instance [al] in the word "Kalpa". The occurrence of such sound combinations in the syllables of Sanskrit was relatively frequent. Thus we can again see that under Sanskrit, a language which had prolonged vowel qualities, the people developed an advanced civilisation. It should be noted that Sanskrit is a dead language now(it died just like the Attic and Latin, and with it the civilisations).

2.7.1 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIAN CIVILISATION The advanced civilisation’s of the past all contained the prolonged vowel qualities in the syllables of the language. It is also highly probable that the ancient Egyptians spoke a language which contained the prolonged vowel qualities. This quality in turn allowed them to create the advanced civilisation of which remnants are the pyramids, and the arts within them. There is a real possibility that the ancient Egyptians spoke a language which contained the prolonged vowel qualities. This can be deducted from the remaining evidence of their writings (although we can only speculate as the Egyptian probably did not indicate vowels in their writing system).

However what indicates that these are prolonged vowel qualities can be deducted from two sources. Firstly there are words which are written with one consonant and which have many meanings. This means that it is possible and in fact highly likely that the distinctions among these words was made in terms of the vowel quality. For instance, a word "an" meaning an aye, and "an" meaning beautiful could have been distinguished by the vowel length. Where "an" with a short [a] could have meant aye and "an" with a lang [aa] could have meant beautiful. This distinction does not necessarily has to be in vowel length, it also could have been in terms of tone as in Chinese or one could have been a vowel and the other a diphthong.

In all these cases the need for the distinction in the vowel, in most case, automatically prolonged the vowel quality in that language. As the distinctions causes the vowel to be produced longer (or/and in higher intensity) for the differences among the vowels to be perceived. Another evidence that suggests that the Ancient Egyptian possessed the prolonged vowel quality is that it possessed combinations of vowel like sounds with in the syllables of the words. That is there were combinations of vowels followed by a nasal sounds within a single syllable. for instance the word "menx" meaning "permanent servant" contained [en] vowel sounds.

The word "meant" meaning "such and such" and the word "meant" meaning "to fail " both have [en] prolonged vowel qualities. Its a reasonable suggestion that in terms of the vowel quality sounds structure one can find a lot of similarity to Modern Dutch, with perhaps the Ancient Egyptian having even more vowel complexity then the Dutch language has (see Dutch vowel structure Ch.3, p.33). It is important to restate here that this is only speculation about the Ancient Egyptians, as there is no concrete evidence as is the case with other languages.(The only concrete evidence is that there were words where the vowels in syllables were often followed by laterals or nasals).

2.7.2 THE AZTECS

It is also interesting to note that in the Americas there were pre western civilisations which also support the theory proposed in this book. It is impossible to go into great depth here. Let it be just mentioned that, for instance the Aztecs, dominated by the tribes of the Aztec confederacy were the builders of Tenochtitlan city. They were superior warriors, administrators, and builders then other people. They were vigorous and highly developed people. They developed sculpture, metal work, weaving, and picture writing. These tribes develops such a n advanced civilisation because they spoke a language with the prolonged vowel qualities. The evidence that their language possessed prolonged vowel qualities can be found in some remaining words which had prolonged vowel qualities. For instance the word "pantli" which meant flag had both syllables with prolonged vowel qualities. There were many other such words with prolonged vowel qualities, words such as "tlantli" which meant teeth.

In concluding this chapter, we must state that in all past advanced civilisations contained prolonged vowel qualities. And as these prolonged vowel qualities began to shorten this caused these civilisations to crumble. In the next two chapter we will see that all the modern societies with developed and fast developing economies also contain prolonged vowel qualities. While the countries that are not developed, and are not developing, do not posses the prolonged vowel qualities.

Bronze statuette of the Canonite god Ball. The word “ball is an alarm sound on its own.

Evidence indicates that at the height of their development, the prevalent languages utilized by those civilizations were alarm languages.

PART 4

Understanding the Impact of Alarm Languages on Psychology and Behavior.

3. Understanding the Impact of Alarm Languages on Psychology and Behavior.

One question that you may like to ask is: “How does an alarm language influence the society in which it is utilized?”. The answer to this question lies in the human ability to process an alarm language, which in turn creates a society that is very alert and sensitive. To understand the way in which alarm sounds within a language are being processed, let us describe some of the areas in the brain that are involved in the processing of alarm sounds.

The outermost layer of our brain is the neocortex. Among other things, the neocortex is responsible for our ability to learn and think rationally.

Underneath the neocortex are the more primitive brain structures that human beings share with other animals. The two structures that are of most relevance here are the mammalian limbic system and the archaic reptilian core. These structures control many of the automatic behaviors and reflexes that are fundamental to the survival of organisms, such as the compulsion to breathe and the processing and vocalizing of alarm sounds.

5.12 NONLINGUISTIC COMMUNICATION CUES

Another important function which is also controlled by the mammalian limbic system and the archaic reptilian core are the nonlinguistic communication cues. The nonlinguistic communication cues are also quite essential to our survival as well as to many animals on the evolutionary scale. The nonlinguistic communication cues can be divided into two groups. The vocal communication cues which are sounds produced by animals as well as humans (and which are the key in this book). The second group is the nonvocal nonlinguistic communication cues which include behaviours such as facial expression, body movement and postures.

A closer look at the nonlinguistic communication cues shows that these cues are similar between man and other animals. This similarity can be perceived when the individuals are used in courtship. Also when in displaying other internal emotional states, such as aggression or fear (fear is the important part here). Because these cues are similar it indicates to us their evolutionary importance. Thus humans just as other animals perceive and produce these cues automatically, where we have little control over them.

There is a lot of evidence which shows that the nonlinguistic communication cues are perceived and produced automatically. Firstly in humans there is some very straight forward evidence which can be found by looking at infants. Right from birth an infant automatically recognises a mother smile and looks at that smiling mother a longer period of time (Givens 1983). Thus showing that recognition of nonvocal nonverbal cues are instinctive and automatic. Also in terms of vocal nonlinguistic cues a baby which is crying will quite down if you hold it and speak to it in a soft droning tone for a few minutes. Again showing that humans perceive automatically the tone or intonation of the voice, which is a vocal nonlinguistic cues.

Further evidence that these cues are automatic can be seen in courtship. Where in human and animal courtship, similar nonlinguistic cues are sent and received. If two animals for instance want to mate, they need to get closer to each other to do that. Thus they send out cues which are virtually meaning, as Givens (1983) points out that, the individual that is initiating the courtship, that The individual is harmless, and that he or she can be approached. The cues which are used are characterised by the meekness or the coy look. these cues can be found in both humans and animals.

Givens (1978, 1983) gives example of these courting signals at work. He points out that in humans for instance when a woman meets a man to whom she is attracted she will bend her head down to look submissive thus more appealing. Then that woman will turn her head half way to one side to reduce the threat of her gaze. Similarly in the animal kingdom a female possum which is a relatively primitive mammal does a similar pattern of actions. When the female possum is receptive to male advances. She will tilt her head down and turn her face away at an angle to reduce the threat of her gaze. This coy look is in turn perceived attractively by both human and animals males.

There is also evidence that sending and recognition of these courting nonlinguistic cues, aggression and fear nonlinguistic communication cues, come from the mammalian limbic system and the archaic reptilian core. For instance as David Givens (1983) mentioned that when the neocortex of a female hamster was removed, that hamster had problems with anything that had to do with intelligence. However because the older brain structures remained, that hamster still sent all the right wooing signs she then correctly perceived male hamster advances and eventually was successful in having a number of healthy offspring.

Let us now turn our attention totally to verbal nonlinguistic cues. These cues are on the same level and are governed by the same brain structures as are the nonverbal communication cues. Thus we recognise cues such as meekness, liking, aggression and fear both in terms of vocal and nonvocal nonlinguistic cues. This recognition occurs automatically and unconsciously just like it happens in throughout the animals kingdom. The division between vocal and nonvocal nonlinguistic cues was made purely for organisation purpose. however in reality the vocal nonlinguistic cues are also used together with the nonvocal nonlinguistic cues in courtship and in display of other internal emotional states.

5.2 SYLLABIC FORM OF THE NONLINGUISTIC COMMUNICATION CUES

It is important to note that all of the nonlinguistic sounds are presented in syllables or syllabic form. For instance, insects such as the bush cricket (homorocoryphus intidulus vicinus) produces sounds during the closure of their forewings. Each forewings closure produces a syllable of sound. Syllables are also used in primate animal communication. Chimpanzees for example which are closest in evolutionary terms to humans have vocal communication which occurs primarily as emotional responses in syllabic form. They are capable to learn only a few syllabic words such as "mama", however their vocal nonlinguistic calls are all in syllabic forms.

The logical reason why all nonlinguistic sounds are produced and thus perceived automatically in syllabic form, through out the animal kingdom is the fact that each syllable has an intensity peak, or a concentration of acoustic energy. Where it is only reasonable that any breath or pulse of air which is required by any animal to produce a sound must have an intensity peak. Thus naturally with humans this principle also applies, where each syllable has an associated ballistic chest pulse. In fact there are nonlinguistic sounds produced by humans which are in syllable form such as are cries, laughs, moans, shrieks and cheers.

Note that when we listen to speech we perceive that speech on two different levels simultaneously. On the one hand the neocortex perceives the language side of the speech. On the other hand the more primitive brain areas which include the mammalian limbic system and the old reptilian core perceives automatically the vocal nonlinguistic cues within the constrains of the syllables of the speech. Bateson (1968) makes the point that “there is a general belief that in the evolution of man, language replaced the cruder systems of the other animals” Bateson pointed out that this view is totally wrong. Rather the kinesics of man have become richer and more complex, and paralanguage has blossomed side by side with the evolution of verbal language. p.614.

He points out that “our iconic(nonlinguistic) communication serves functions totally different from those of language and, indeed perform functions which verbal language is unsuited to perform. It seems that the discourse of the nonverbal communication is precisely concerned with matters of relationships-love, hate, respect, fear, dependency, exc. between self and vis-a-vis or between self and environment.” p.615.

Thus when one looks at human speech which is constructed of consonants which are interspaced with vowel sounds. Then at one level the meaning of the speech is perceived by our neocortex. Where as on the other level if the syllables of that language are projecting sound structure which is reminiscent of fear to our lower brain areas, then the syllables are automatically perceived as. Importantly for our purpose, the prolonged vowel quality in a syllable is quite similar to alarm sounds produced by other animals close to us on the evolutionary scale.

5.42 FEAR SOUNDS; AND THE PROLONGED VOWEL QUALITIES IN LANGUAGES WITH MOTIVATION

Now as we know that the fear sounds produced usually are characterised by having a prolonged vowel quality produced in high pitch. How can we relate or encompass that fear within the human language concept. To do such an analogy we first restate that speech is made of syllables. Now the syllables of a language can have either long or short vowel qualities. If the syllable have long vowel qualities then one could say that such a syllable possesses alarm qualities. Which are perceived automatically by the lower brain areas, and which automatically increase our state of alertness.

To demonstrate that the alarm cries of animals are similar to the prolonged vowel qualities produced in languages with the prolonged vowel qualities. Below is an example where the alarm call of a European Bluebird is similar to the prolonged vowel quality [ei] in the word "heid". As one can see even though the blackbird produces an alarm call which has one formant. On the other hand in the second spectrogram a person produces the [ei] vowel quality in the word “heid”, where we can see three formants. The important thing is that both of these sounds have vowel qualities which is characterised by the formants, and further more importantly, both of these sounds have the prolonged vowel qualities.

Thus when the language contains the prolonged vowel qualities, the impact can be felt frequently during a persons every day life. For instance in short term memory operated phonetically, that is in terms of the sounds of the language. This means that this occurs very frequently as the short term memory activity almost all the time is in use. Further during reading the sound qualities are produced, even in silent reading Van Orden, G. C. (1987). And thus the alarm qualities of the language has almost never ending impact.

5.43 THE DEGREE OF THE DANGER

In birds as well as in other animals when the danger becomes more immediate, that is when the situation becomes more desperate the cries become gradually longer. As for instance Rosenhouse (1977) pointed out, that in the hunger cries when the baby becomes more hungry the cries become gradually longer, louder with shorter pauses.

Sebeok noted that the degree of alarm may also parallel the closeness of the enemy. As calls change abruptly from relatively short notes to prolonged and cat like meows. As an example, while observing red winged blackbirds, Agelaius phoeniceus, in Wisconsin. Sebeok noticed that as soon as he had stepped out of the blind, the nearby territorial males would begin to give their various alarm notes. At the begining they uttering their brief, deep, and repeated “scolding” notes. Then louder, high disyllabic notes slurred downward. However as he aproached closer the sounds became prolonged, high, thin note. Similarly, he noted that a female marsh hawk, Circus cyaneus, would give a shrill, segmented alarm call whether they first approached her nest. However when they came closer to her nestling the bird sounds would change to high, drown out screams while the bird kept diving down at us.

In mans languages the same principals applies, that is the more prolonged vowel quality the syllables of that language have, the more motivation that languages gives its speakers. And as was mentioned in Ch.3 German has slightly more prolonged vowel qualities then English and this gives them more motivation. Where this is visible in the Germans outperform the British economically. Thus the longer the vowel quality of the vowels within the syllables the more alarming or threatening effect. And in respect of the prolonged vowel quality produced at high pitch Mandarin language is the most extreame. In that it has the most extremely prolonged vowel qualities produced at highest pitch. This makes them very alert and thus gives them extreme economic competitiveness.

5.44 FEAR SOUNDS; THE OTHER FORM (JAPANESE)

As was already discussed, the fear sounds are usually characterised by having a prolonged vowel quality, produced at high pitch. The more threatening the situation the more prolonged the vowel quality and the higher the pitch. However there is also another much less common form of alarm calls. As many birds and mammals typically use one sort of call for an aerial predator and another for one on the ground. The call for ground predator is a different sort of alarm calls. These types of sounds are as was just mentioned earlier, that when the degree of danger is not as intense the notes uttered are brief, deep, and repeated “scolding” notes, a shrill type of sound. There are very short cries, with duration of about 100 ms (however in these cases the cries also have a high rate of air flow and high intraoral pressure). In fact these warning calls represent danger which requires immediate action to avoid it. Such situations can occur for instance when a ground predator is perceived by a domestic fowl. Or the hawks warning call when a ground predator such as dog or man is perceived is segmented Carpenter (1934). And on spectrogram these sounds appear as follows:

As one can see these alarm sounds are harsh and this harshness is perceivable on the spectrogram as a wide spread of frequencies, as can be seen above. The Japanese language also have short vowel qualities, however the vowel quality of the Japanese are slightly different then the type of alarm qualities described above. The type of alarm calls that is found in the Japanese language, are that sort of alarm calls which are characteristic of animal sounds produced when the predator approaches and the parent animal wants to protect its young. For instance, when the wolf produces a series of short, sharp, sounds, of uniform loudness and pitch repeated with very short intervals between them. These types of sounds are produced chiefly when some predator or strange animals approach the den Murie’s (1944). Note that these sounds are similar to the ones produced by the Japanese when they produce their vowels.

Further the sounds produced by the Japanese are also characteristic of the animal sounds which are designed to repel. These sounds are characterised by being harsh and high pitch, where these sounds are still alarm calls(see Carpenter 1934). Harshness in a spectrogram is indicated by a wide spread of frequencies, combined with harmonic streaks(where harmonic streaks are representative of vowel qualities). One can see that the vowel qualities of the Japanese appear as harsh on spectrogram.

This harshness in desperate defensive situations of ones young is widely spread through out the animal kingdom. For instance when the parent sandhill crane, Grus canadensis, sounds its loud, harsh, and grunting alarm call, its young at once rush off the nest and hide in the surrounding marsh vegetation. In defensive situation when aversion fails especially when the parent(s) want to protect their offspring’s, such growling and threatening sounds are produced. There were many studies or observations which showed growling sounds made when defending the ofspring, studies such as Severaid (1942), Hediger (1948), Burrell (1927), Gullion (1952), Endler (1956), Carpenter (1934).

3.1. Automatic Perception of Alarm Sounds.

Whenever human beings communicate using alarm languages, while their neocortex comprehends the conveyed linguistic messages, their more primitive brain areas automatically recognize the alarm qualities that are contained within the words. Whenever human beings communicate using an alarm language, they are recurrently exposed to the alarm sounds that reside within the words of this language. In fact, whenever they read, speak, think or listen to speech, they are being continuously exposed to the alarm sounds that are contained within their lexicon. The alarm sounds within their language may unconsciously traumatize the nervous systems of such individuals and over an extensive period of time may substantially impact their personalities, effecting many of their everyday behaviors.

People who extensively communicate using alarm languages may become increasingly sensitive/alert over time. Alertness is a long lasting state, closely related to fear. In potentially threatening situations, human beings and animals become increasingly alert. Evolutionary, this maximizes the organism’s chances of survival, as an alert organism perceives dangerous stimuli far more readily than a relaxed one, and directs its energy to either fleeing the dangerous situation or fighting the dangerous stimuli.

3.2. Changes that Accompany the Alarm State.

Whenever individuals interpret a situation as threatening, they experience many physiological and psychological changes. These changes are a consequence of the activation of the Automatic Nervous System (ANS), which prepares organisms for either fleeing or fighting dangerous situations. Among the physiological changes instigated by the ANS are: dilation of blood vessels in the brain and in the muscles, dilation of pupils, increase in heart rate, increase in blood pressure, secretion of sweat, constriction of blood vessels in the periphery of the body (which induces coldness in hands and feet), inhibition of digestive processes, inhibition of salivation and the release of hormones which keep the organism alert for some time after the danger has passed.

The above physical changes are accompanied by psychological ones. The psychological changes which constitute the responses of human beings to alarm sounds are designed to increase their speed of reaction to dangerous stimuli and their ability to detect the future occurrences of those stimuli. Some of these psychological changes are listed below.

3.2.1. Increased Alertness and Attentional Bias.

Under the influence of fear, an organism becomes increasingly alert. It scans its environment for sings of recognizable threats, whether they be previously encountered (hence stored in the memory), instinctually perceived as dangerous, or novel. When organisms experience fear, as they are scanning their environments for dangerous stimuli, they experience an attentional bias, where they automatically shift their attention to those stimuli which are potentially threatening, while ignoring the ones that are not.

3.2.2. Attentional Memory Bias Reactions.

Even the memory of alert individuals is effected by attentional bias. Individuals who are alert are more likely to recall threatening memories then non-threatening ones. This may be of great assistance in dangerous situations, as it may allow individuals to rapidly identify possible threats in their environments, based on their previous experiences. Additionally, when individuals are in a mental state of alarm they automatically record threatening stimuli in their memories. The process via which individual record threatening stimuli in their memories is termed “Pavlovian Conditioning”, which is an evolutionary learning mechanism first experimentally demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936).

3.2.2. Restriction of Distracting and Unnecessary Activities.

When organisms find themselves in situations which they perceive as dangerous, their participation in any activities that may unnecessarily use up their mental energy is reduced.

For example, when human beings are under the influence of fear, their speech is inhibited so that their energy is not wasted on talking, but rather When organisms find themselves in situations which they perceive as dangerous, their participation in any activities that may unnecessarily use up their mental energy is reduced.

For example, when human beings are under the influence of fear, their speech is inhibited so that their energy is not wasted on talking, but rather may be conserved or used to scan their environment for potential dangers. In such circumstances, human beings also manifest little variation in their hand gestures, facial expressions and voice expressiveness. These functions are automatically restricted by the ANS.

Additionally, when communicating with other people, individuals who are frightened use linguistic terminology that is straight to the point and is not very descriptive. This may be to ensure that their language does not distract them from scanning their environment for signs of danger. The above summary of the major psychological changes that take place in human beings when they are alert suggests potential hypotheses about the personality changes that may take place in individuals who extensively communicate using alarm languages.

3.3. Personality of an Alarmed Person.

Using the above descriptions we may begin to see glimpses of a prototypical personality of individuals who are very alert. Alert individuals may be perceived by others as cold, serious, quiet, boring or melancholic. This may be largely attributed to their use of phrases that are minimally descriptive and their limited use of hand gestures. Furthermore, their heightened state of alertness may predispose alert individuals to perceive social situations as threatening, hence predisposing them to withdraw from such situations.

On the other hand, individuals who are less alert may be perceived by others as extroverted, sociable, warm, playful, talkative, exciting and choleric. This perception may be largely attributed to their failure to be restricted by the psychological changes which accompany alertness, that are instigated by the ANS. Hence, in opposition to their introverted counterparts, extroverts are more linguistically descriptive and expressive and use more elaborate hand gestures and facial expressions. Furthermore, as they do not perceive social situations as threatening, they do not withdraw from them, rather they enjoy socializing. The above prototypical description of the personality of individuals who vary on the dimension of alertness is mirrored in Eyesenc’s and Pavlov’s descriptions of the dimensions of personality.

Pavlov (1849 – 1936) and Eyesenck (19) are among the key contributors to the study of personality. Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, became one of the most prominent figures in the field of psychology through his contribution to the theory of learning and the study of conditioning. Hans Eyesenck was an experimental researcher and a lecturer, who contributed to the study of psychology through his research on the dimensions of personality, in particular introversion and extroversion.

Utilizing different terminology, both Pavlov and Eyeseck believed that the various dimensions of personality differ according to the organisms’ underlying sensitivity, or in Pavlov’s words, the degree to which organisms are effected by fear.

Corresponding to what I’ve described as the personality of alert individuals, Pavlov used the term “melancholic” and Eyesenck used the term “introverted”. Conversely, to describe the personality of non-alert individuals, Pavlov used the term “choleric” and Eyesenck used the term “extroverted”.

According to Eyesenck, individuals who are highly extroverted are relatively at ease during social encounters. They tend to be very talkative and frequently gaze at the persons with whom they are interacting. Introverts on the other hand, tend to be very nervous during social encounters. They gaze at the people with whom they are interacting for much shorter periods of time than do less inhibited individuals, hence they are likely to be perceived by others as nervous and tense. Individuals who are introverted, that is who are effected by stimuli at a low threshold (in other words who are highly alert) are likely to worry about not getting along with people or not saying the right things, hence they perceive social encounters as threatening.

Additionally, the ANS of highly alert individuals may impair their ability to be at ease in social encounters, because it restricts their capacity to engage in many socially pro-active behaviors. For example, their heightened alertness restricts their ability to be talkative and to use many forms of gesturing, such as hand gesturing. Thus, even though highly introverted individuals may like to be talkative, their anxiety inhibits them, so that they feel uneasy in social encounters.

It is possible that an experience of trauma, whether it is sudden or subtly accumulating over time (such as long term exposure to an alarm language) may create an introverted personality within an individual, by reducing the threshold at which an individual is effected by environmental stimuli.

3.4. The Side Effects of Being Highly Alert.

As a side effect, individuals who are highly alert perceive a broad range of stimuli in their environment as potentially threatening, because of the low threshold at which they are effected by stimuli. As a result, individuals who are highly alert think and worry about a wider range of commodities in their environment then individuals who are less sensitive. Because of this, they direct their attention to potential threats in their environment and they recall unpleasant memories associated with those threats with a greater frequency then individuals who are less sensitive. This predisposes them to the experience of anxiety and depression.

Additionally, because introverted individuals experience unpleasant situations much more intensely then extroverts, they may appear lacking persistence and consistency, as they are likely to get easily discouraged in the face of set backs due to the strong aversive reactions they develop to things going wrong.

Likewise, because whenever they are about to endeavor on a new project (such a new business) introverts worry about the possible dangers which may occur, their concern about the multitude of things that may go wrong may deter or stop them from achieving their goals. However, once they initiate their projects, introverts are more likely then extroverts to successfully execute them, as they are more likely to notice and act upon threats in their environment which may endanger the smooth execution of their projects.

3.4.1 Side effect of being highly alert: Communication and the dominance hierarchy

Individuals who are highly alert tend to project nonlinguistinc communication cues which are perceived as unattractive. There two main reasons why the communication of an alert person tend to be perceived as unattractive. Firtly because such communication has a stronger tendency to project fearful and thus unpleasant cues. Secondly, because alert individuals tend to project communication which in nature is perceived as being low on the dominance hierarchy.

Domminance hierarchy had evolved in nature to provide structure for animals that live in group. Usually in a group of animals there is one animal who is phisicaly stronger and because of the this superior strengh is able to dominate other animals in the group by the means of fighting or threats. However it is not necessary for animals to fight every time they come in contact for them to know their place within dominance hierarchy. Mazur (1985) points out status ranks are allocated among members of a group through face to face interaction and that allocation process is similar across primate species, including humans. Every member of a group signifies its rank through physical or vocal demeanour. For example, behaviour signs of a dominant status include erect posture, glares, aye contact, strutting, and in humans assertive speech

There are great survival advantages of being high on the dominance hierarchy as it is these members that get best access to food and accomodation. Another important advantage of being high on the dominance hierarchy is that such animals show the highest chance of reproduction. , as females are highly attracted to such males as females instinctivelyknow that mating with a male that is high on the diminance hierarchy will increase the chance of survival for the offsprings.

Mazur, A., (1985) indicates that it is common feature of status hierarchies that low-ranked members show more stress symptoms then higher-ranked members during common interaction. Low ranked monkeys, apes, and humans are often described as “nervous, insecure” while those of high rank often appear “relaxed, confident”.

There is a lot of evidence which show that a low ranked member of a group shows high anxiety. For instance Ray at al. (1992) found that males (wild baboons) most involved in sexual courtships had the lowest cortisal concentration and smaller cortical stress responses. This means that the males which are high ranked show less anxiety. Also Eisemann, (1992)found that

subordinate rabbits showed chronically elevated heart rate that cannot be explained by limited access to burrow shelter or by cumulative effects of heart rate reactions during aggressive encounters. If a subordinate rabbit achieved a dominant position, its heart rate gradually adjusted to the lower level characteristic of dominant individuals. Still further Blanchard et al (1987) showed that overall subordinate males(rats) consuming much more (significantly more) ethanol then any of the dominant males. Suggesting that the social stress of subordination may be a factor in ethanol consumption. Female colony members consumed significantly more ethanol them males(females being more anxious and thus lower on the dominance hierarchy is important and will be analysed in section 8.5).

8.11 DOMINANCE HIERARCHY AND REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS

The dominance hierarchy is found widely throughout the animal kingdom, especially in mammals. It is extremely valuable to be highly ranked male on this dominance hierarchy. As it increases the reproductive success of these individual. Basically the dominant males monopolise the reproduction process. Where as the males who are lowly ranked on the dominance hierarchy virtually get no offspring, that is they are likely to be denied females all together.

And this fact has been shown in many studies, which show that males of high status copulate more frequently then males of lower status. See for instance studies by Appleby, M. C. 1982, Howard, R. D. 1978, Hausfaster, G. 1975, Madsen, T., R. Shine, J. Loman, and T. Hakansson. 1992. In fact a review of dominance and mating success by Colishaw et al (1991) based on 32 studies indicated that high dominance status automatically confer high reproductive success in all male primates.

The reproductive success of the high ranking males is further shown by Mazur, A., (1985) who indicates that individuals whose behaviour exhibit dominance show high or rising levels of testosterone compared to those who exhibit deference, an important finding which will be addressed later on.

One of the main reasons that the males who are high on the dominance hierarchy have such high reproductive success, is that the females are attracted to the communication cues of the high ranking males. Where the low anxiety cues of these high ranked males are universally attractive. This attraction to the communication cues of the highly ranked males on the dominance hierarchy is found widely through out the animal kingdom.

Alcock (1993) gives an example which shows that in the wild the place on the dominance hierarchy is indicated by the auditory signals among others. He points out that the dominant male in a captive flock sings high potency songs that effectively stimulate females to adopt the precopulatory displays, enabling him to monopolise the sexually receptive females in his flock. The other males learn from the attacks and threats of more dominant males not to sing the most stimulating song they can, or more appropriately these threat, attacks and anxiety associated with being lowly ranked cause these individuals to automatically and unconsciously modify their songs. Thus their songs then do not cause the dominant males to attack them.

There are also other cues which signals the dominance status of the animal, such as smell sense. Where the scent of a male mouse’s urine has a remarkable variety of effects on the physiological status of the animals around him. Thus, a familiar dominant male’s odour promotes reproductive cycling in the mature females he lives with, the absence of a male or the scent of a strange male, blocks the female sexual activity. Furthermore the odour of a dominant male speeds sexual maturity in young females-unless the dominant male is their father Lendrum (1985).

Now the main reason that the communication cues of low anxiousness are so attractive is that these cues basically represent security and higher survival chance for itself and its offspring’s. Thus the females are attracted to dominant males because in the evolution the dominant males increased the chance of survival. However it is also important to mention that the communication cues of low anxiousness in also important in female to female interaction in animals as well as humans as will be seen later.

To illustrate how mating with a highly ranked male increases the survival chance, is that the strongest genes are passed on to the offspring and this automatically increases the survival chance of that offspring. As in the world of the survival of the fittest, the genes from the stronger father can only help. Secondly the animals who are higher on the dominance hierarchy get better access to food and choose better breading grounds. For instance West et al (1981) points out that socially dominant(European blackbird) when choosing the territory for breading, individuals are in a position to select the better of the breading grounds. While forcing subordinates to “make the best of the bad situation” by adopting the option with a lower reproductive pay off.

Another example involves the spotted hyenas, these hyenas live in large bands, hunt big game, and compete fiercely with one another for meat from the animal they kill. Competition for dominance in the group is of paramount importance because, dominant females and their offspring’s gain more food then subordinate ones Frank, L. G. 1986, Stewart, K. J. 1987. Further the sons of the dominant females inherit their mothers’ high dominance status. If the son of a dominant female becomes the top male in his new clan, he will enjoy exceptional reproductive success because only the dominant male mates.

Mazur, states that “ the status hierarchy is a stable structure running through the primate group, with those of high rank able to manipulate those below them”.p.379.. On the other hand the communication cues of the individuals who are lowly ranked on the dominance hierarchy exhibit more fear, surprise, uncertainty, and other emotions cues which as Mazur (1978) points out “can hinder sexual attachment” (p.347) and thus their communication cues are unattractive to the females.

Another body language feature which projects zoosemiotic cues about the anxiety level of the individual is the rubbing or scratching behaviour of the individual. That is the scratching or rubbing the individual does the less anxious he is, or another word the higher he is on the dominance hierarchy. This phenomenon can be found right through out the animal kingdom. For instance Easley (1987) investigated the relationship among dominance rank, tension and scratch behaviours in male baboons, using focal behaviour sampling techniques. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) demonstrated significant differences in the rate of scratching behaviours by dominance rank class. High status Subjects had higher rate of total scratching, hand scratching, foot scratching and tension behaviour performance then low status subjects.

Another study by Hilakivi-Clark et al(1992) found that mice which are dominant spend less time immobile in a swim test and higher locomotor activities then did the subordinate mice. This shows that anxiety restraints unnecessary behaviour, as learned helplessness does (see Mazur 1994 for an explanation). Thus again body scratching or rubbing is a communicational cues which demonstrates that the organism is highly ranked on the dominance hierarchy, and is lowly anxious. Simply put the more anxious individual is less active.

The quality of being less anxious plays a more significant role when it comes to societies which have a highly anxiety on average. In such societies the attraction of being less anxious is highly desirable. The reason being, is that in anxious situations there is a tendency to follow the people who are high on the dominance hierarchy. Eibl-Eibesfeldt (1979).p.386, discusses bonding through fear, a very old phenomenon that plays a significant role in organisms from fish to man. Eibl-Eibesfeldt points out that a child always flees to its mother. An animal’s flight goal is often provided by the dominant animal in the group. This is especially important in the more anxious cultures. Where the less anxious individuals are highly sought after and have a highly dominant position. Where they basically chose the female of their choice.

A direct link has been found between testosterone and the rank on the dominance hierarchy (Mazur 1985). Where for instance in monkeys Rose et al.(1975) have found that successful attempts to achieve or maintain status seems to increase plasma testosterone while defeats seem to produce a decline in testosterone. Where the higher the rank the more testosterones there is. In humans the highly ranked individuals showed high plasma testosterone (Ehrenkranz et al 1974). Mazur and Lamb found that winners of competitive wrestling matches showed greater increase in testosterone then losers.

3.5. Comparisons Between Different Societies.

Members of societies which use alarm languages are likely to be more alert and introverted than members of societies which use languages with fewer alarm qualities. In this we see how societies which use alarm languages are mainly comprised of individuals who appear introverted (alert) whereas societies which use non alarm languages are comprised of individuals who appear extroverted (less alert).

Among the societies who appear introverted (alert) are USA, Canada, Central and Northern Europe and Asia Pacific countries. As is the case with individuals who are introverted, the countries listed above have a relatively high incidence of anxiety and depression in comparison to the societies that are perceived as more extroverted. Such societies use non alarm languages, tend to be economically undeveloped, and are located in regions of the world such as Africa, Arabia, Latin America and Southern Europe.

Interestingly, it is very likely that at the peak of their economic development, many ancient civilizations were comprised of individuals who exhibited mainly introverted personality characteristics and who were predisposed to anxiety and depression. This is evident from the uncovered texts that remained from these ancient times.

PART 4

Putting It All Together-Emerging Theory of Economical Development.

9.11 INTELLIGENCE

Any person in this world has the same intellectual potential (there can only be minimal and insignificant difference in intellectual potential). This intelligence as was mentioned earlier intelligence is one of the visible features of anxiety proneness. What has to be realised, however is that any individual whether he has high or low anxiety proneness. If placed in the right environment will develop their intellectual potential to a high degree. For an individual to develop his intellectual potential that person has to be bombarded with complex ideas and problems. He has to be made to evaluate different situations where he has to come up with solutions. Then such environment will develop that persons intellectual potential.

The problem is to create such a stimulating environment where the people will consistently perceive and worry about things. This is the key in creating a highly developed society. However to create such an environment we would need the population to be of highly average anxious or anxiety pronened. Where in such an environment the individuals perceive everything as more threatening and thus they worry about all sorts of things in their environment. They worry about little things that a less anxious society could never be bothered about. Thus in such an environment the population is more likely to develop a higher IQ.

Thus the reason why the whites in the US are on average 15 points higher on IQ tests then are blacks is because the whites live in an environments which allow them to develop their intellectual potential better. That is because the whites are more anxious then the blacks. They create a problem solving environment which allows the majority of the population to develop a higher IQ score then the IQ score of the blacks.

This better environment of the whites is mainly caused by the fact that they have in their family people with high anxiety level. Thus they get better environment from the start of their lives. As whites grow up they are usually surrounded by other whites thus they are mainly stimulated by a threatening stimulis in their environment. Also the more uncertain atmosphere caused by the worries is further thought provoking, leading to a higher IQ. On the other hand side the Negroids on average are incapable in this present situation to create an atmosphere where intelligence can be developed to the same level as the whites. The reason is that they are missing the essential ingredient which is high level of anxiety proneness.

As the black population in the US increases relatively to that of whites they will increasingly be in the black environment and they will increasingly perform more poorly on intelligence tests. As the anxiety cause by the white environment will progressively decrease in the black community. Thus high anxiety proneness is the major reason why whites perform better on these tests, thus the only way to improve the blacks environment is to increase their anxiety proneness and this can only be achieved by making then speak a language with extremely prolonged vowel qualities. If the blacks did this one day in the future then they will enjoy a high living standard as they will have the right environment. One can see the same pattern occurs all over the world, where in societies with high anxiety proneness there is usually higher intelligence.

A good illustration of how performance in educational tests are influenced by the anxiety proneness of the society is to look at the performance of the Japanese and other Far East Asians population in comparison to the Americans. The Japanese and the other Far East countries are higher anxiety prone then the Americans, this is the reason why their children do better then their American equivalents in education field. An example of the East Asians better performance is that even though Asian-Americans in 1983 comprised less then 2 percent of the American population. They still managed to win 30 percent of the top 40 places in the prestigious Westinghouse science talent search.

It must be remembered that intelligence for a society to be highly developed is not the most important factor. That is being good at mathematics does not mean that one will be more worried and scared. The most important factor is need for majority of people in that society to care and worry about what is going on. And highly anxiety prone people care more and worry more about what is going on around then. Now it is impossible to teach a whole society to be more scared and worried, because people tend to prefer not to be bothered or worried as its unpleasant and tiresome. They have natural tendency to seek pleasure, thus higher anxiety proneness has to be instilled in them through the language that they speak.

9.12 PROBLEMS WITH EDUCATION AS THE SOLUTION

In poor societies and societies where the living standard is falling or is stagnating at a desperately low level such as in Egypt GNP(Growth national product) is equivalent to US $ 600 per head in 1991, as estimated by the world bank at average 1989-90 prices. Which is more then forty two times lower then the GNP of a country such Sweden where its equivalent to US $ 25,450 per head. Now many of the policies of these poor societies was and is to focus on education in the belief that it will cause an improvement in the living standards of these societies. However one does not need to look far to note that there policies did not work and were expensive failures. Yet they are repeated over and over again as the cure for poverty. The policy makers cant think of any other solutions to the problem of poverty so they repeat like a broken record that education is the answer.

The problem with education as the solution to the problems of poverty is that one cannot educate a society into becoming more anxiety prone. It has never been done, as it is impossible to do. Another words one cannot educate a person in order so that that person will become permanently more afraid (one can scare children in schools however as soon as they will get out of school their fear will diminish). Further one cannot scare a whole society, so that the society will be scared all the time.

The humans natural tendency is to avoid fear, where humans like all other animals are repelled by problems they long towards the pleasure and unfortunately pleasure by itself cannot create a modern civilised society. Thus one cannot really educate a person so that he will be more worried then his anxiety proneness will allow him to be. For instance doing more mathematics will not make a person a more worried person. In the Arabic countries there is a high education level but these countries are sliding deep into poverty and chaos. What they lack is fear or anxiety in general.

The most important way that education can help to lift a society out of poverty, is to help teach the children of that society a new language which will raise these children anxiety proneness. Thus the real solution is to identify the anxiety level of a society and then address this deficiency. Thus a high average anxiety proneness creates the right environment for the individuals to create a society which allows for economical development and maintain that economical development. Thus the solution for poor societies is to raise their average anxiety proneness by installing prolonged vowel qualities in the syllables of their language.

4.1 Integrating all the ideas together

Modern societies which are economically developed have a very complex structure that is difficult to create, maintain and advance, as it contains a multitude of interconnected systems such as the communication and transport systems. Such systems need to be simultaneously attended to if the society is to maintain its functioning. Only those societies which manifest a heightened alertness to the potential and actual threats in their multitude of interconnected systems are able to sustain and improve them. This is because only individuals who are concerned about the possible threats to the many social systems that comprise their society are likely to attend to the individual parts of those systems, maintaining their complex interconnectedness .

Highly alert individuals are less likely to be bored with the maintenance of such systems then individuals who are less alert to the potential threats in their social environments. Hence, the majority of individuals who comprise modern societies don’t require as much outside stimulation as the less sensitive individuals, which means that they are capable of maintaining long periods of concentration even on the most monotonous of tasks.

Their attentional bias towards potential problems within their social systems means that their attention is often directed toward the modification and improvement of those systems, while the individuals who are less sensitive and have a higher threshold at which they are affected by the potential dangers in their environment may not even recognize them.

Therefore, it is of no surprise that the most efficient and industrious of societies are also among the most alert.

For example, Germany is one of the most industriously developed and modern nations, possibly because its population speaks a language that is composed of many intense alarm sounds.

9.21 ATTENTIONAL BIAS AND ECONOMICAL PERFORMANCE

The reason that the more anxious people create an environment in which there is economical development, is that they pay more attention to the threatening stimulis. As shown by studies such as for instance Mathews et al. (1985), Macleod et al. (1992). Where to the anxious threatening stimuli is simply more threatening then to a less anxious person. Eysenck et al (1991) showed that anxious subjects interpreted ambiguous sentences by its more threatening fashion. This atttentional bias towards the threatening stimulus has a number of important influences on a group. Which allows them to create the right environment where economical development can flourish and be maintained.

The more anxious person will perceive things or events that are possible problematic and they will be more attentive to these things. On the other hand the less anxious individuals will not even notice or consider them as problems. Thus because the more anxious person sees some thing as more threatening, he then is more likely to do something about it, as he is bothered by it. Further because the anxious person perceives much more things and events as threatening and the threatening things as more intensely threatening then to the less anxious person. Then such a person will worry about much more thing and he will try to solve them.

9.22 WORRY, CARE AND ECONOMICAL PERFORMANCE

In the book “anxiety: the cognitive perspective” by Michael W. Eysenck, people with high trait anxiety are shown to worry more. The worry which is caused by perceiving things or events as threatening, is the fundamental factor needed to create an economically developed society. Such a society which worry more tends to speak more about their worries and these worries with time are addressed. Whereas in the less anxious society they might not even perceive these stimulis as problems and thus they do not bother about them. It must be noted that the people in the more anxious societies are not necessary more intelligent. However they create an atmosphere where intelligence is more likely to be developed to a higher level.

The more anxious society tents to worry more about things such as the ozone layer, the nuclear threat, economical development. And when it comes to something like the future they worry more about what will happen. For instance they worry about their living standard how its going to be some years ahead. While the less anxious society tends to live for today. This can be seen in the different philosophies of companies, where the American companies in the 80’s tended to worry about the next years profit. While the more anxious Japanese were investing to get profits in many years forward. The more anxious person will perceive the threat of not having enough money next year as much more threatening then to the less anxious person. This would cause the more anxious person or society to save or to invest. And this is also visible across different societies where, in Germany and orient there is highest saving rate, as their anxiety proneness is also the highest.

9.23 OBEDIENCE AND ECONOMICAL PERFORMANCE

In the more anxious society the people tend to be more obedient and this is a very good factor which aids in creating an economically developed and prosperous society. For instance they are more law abiding where any punishment threat, affects a highly anxiety prone more then a low anxiety prone one. the reason

being that they perceive that threat as more threatening.

To illustrate how the more anxious people are more low abiding lets look at the campaign of the road safety organisation. Their aim is to reduce the dangers on the roads and thus reduce the accident toll on the roads each year. One of the main aims is to reduce dangerous driving of the drivers. For instance stop drink-driving, make people wear a seat belt and stop people going through the red light as well as preventing many other offences. To achieve this aim laws are put in place which penalise dangerous driving. The penalties are design to make the driver fill anxious about doing the wrong thing. Thus the driver frightened of driving drunk by the stiff penalties and random breath testing. In such situations the people in the more anxious society are more threatened by these penalties and because of that they avoid doing the wrong thing more. In such situation they will be easier conditioned to associate fear with unsafe driving, thus they will tend to do the right thing.

9.24 CAUTIOUSNESS AND ANXIETY PRONENESS

At the beginning it must be noted that because a person is highly anxiety prone he is thus also highly conditioning prone. This means that over the year the people in the highly anxiety pronened society develop much more aversive associations or conditioned reflexes. Which tend to be restimulated in future situations causing unpleasant feelings(anxiety). What this does is such a person is more restrained in his decisions so that it does not backfire and cause more unpleasantness. Thus in such a society people tend to be more cautious and this is a good feature. Thus such a society cautiously move forward economically, with steady overall investment and development.

9.25 GROUP, THE INDIVIDUAL AND ECONOMICAL DEVELOPMENT

Note that it is not the individual that counts but rather the group. That is the group average anxiety proneness is what counts, and not some individuals anxiety proneness. It is interesting to note that in a society where modern economy can flourish people as individuals might in fact shy, quite and depressed, and thus might be regarded as week. But when one puts them together into a society, they will in fact create a flourishing civilisation. On the other hand what happens is the individuals which are strong and confident and happy will create a poor and undeveloped society.

9.4 THE AROUSAL CURVE AND THE ECONOMICAL PERFORMANCE

Wundt (1893) was perhaps the first to propose the inverted U function. He carried out an experiment in which the subjects reported their sensations to different intensities of stimuli (for example, temperature, pressure, taste smell). He then concluded that hedonic (doctrine that pleasure or happiness is the highest good) tone was related to stimulus intensity by an inverted U function. Where the increases in intensity would be seen as increasingly pleasant up to a certain optimal point, but further increases in intensity would be perceived as increasingly unpleasant.

Yerkes and Dodson (1908) explored other implications of this inverted U function. They hypothesised that efficiency of learning and performance would be maximised at some optimal point when stimulation is sufficiently intense to engage the necessary processing mechanisms. But not so aversely intense as to disrupt such processing. They showed in addition that the exact pattern of the inverted U function depends on the difficulty of the task. Their results, using mice as subjects, indicated that electric shocks of differing intensity interacted with the difficulty of a visual discriminatory task in determining the number of errors made. Thus in a simple task, learning continued to be better with increasing levels of shock, up to a point well beyond that which was optimal for a more difficult task.

Evidence for the existence of the inverted U function in humans was found by Spence & Spence(1966). They studied the joint effect of anxiety and task difficulty on performance of paired-associate learning. In such tasks the subject must learn to respond to a stimulus word with a specific response word (for instance: table-chair). Task difficulty was manipulated by having word-pairs which were naturally associated as in the example just given, or ones where no natural association was present. The researchers found that high anxiety was associated with superior performance of an easy task, but inferior performance of a difficult one. Thus these findings suggest for example that a little anxiety may motivate certain well rehearsed behaviours. The actress who has learned her lines well, the student who has revised his notes diligently, may both have an edge given to their performance when the real thing takes over from dress rehearsal or mock examination. Contrarily, anxiety may be a disruptive influence when preparation has been less adequate.

Arousal or anxiety level

Fig-1 A hypothetical arousal curve in terms of performance, a typical inverted U curve.

In figure one there is the typical inverted U curve which can also be applied to the economical performance or civilisation development of societies. That is to low anxiety proneness hampers economical and civilisation development, and to high anxiety proneness also is detrimental. Where the best economical, technological and artistic development occurs at a certain high anxiety proneness of the society. Thus in layman’s terms we may expect that moderate levels of anxiety proneness can give the edge to performance in creating a highly developed economy. But to high or to levels can be disruptive, supporting the inverted U function. And this leads us nicely to the next section which looks why the North Europeans and not any other people of the world created the modern civilisation.

9.5 EUROPEAN AND OTHER CIVILISATIONS

Ever since the beginning of mans history there appeared from time to time a society which was better developed then the others around it Where they became superior worriers, administrators, and builders. Now as was mentioned earlier these superior civilisations had a higher anxiety proneness then the less developed societies. However non of them created the modern civilisation until Europe. Below is the explanation for why Europe and not other area of the world created the modern civilisation.

10.1 BIOLOGICAL ORIGINS GOVERNING POWER STRUGGLE

Within the animal kingdom there is clear struggle for dominance within a group of animals. And this was found to be the case with animals species such as for instance Hyenas, Cowbirds, platypuses, monkeys and apes as well as many other animals right up to the humans. This points to a common evolutionary roots Mazur (1985); Savin-Williams and Freemans (1977) of dominance hierarchy. The reason that that struggle occurs is that the higher the rank the higher change for the survival of the individuals, as well as higher the change to produce offspring’s.

10.11 HUMAN POWER STRUGGLE

Power struggle of humans have clear origins in human biological heritage. The most fundamental thing that drives any living thing is to survival, a tendency which we share with all living things. In humans as well as in many animals on the evolutionary scale the fundamental means for competing for survival is the struggle for power on the dominance hierarchy, as described in Ch.8. Humans have this natural striving for increasing its position on the dominance hierarchy, which in humans could be described as a biological drive to gain power.

There are two main forms in which one can struggle for power in order to gain an advantage over another person. There are two forms of possibly gaining advantage, one being economical advantage and the other being advantage.

4.2. Applicability of the Theory

Economic developments in the various countries of the world have been created in different ways. For example, New Zealand has developed its economy by successfully producing agricultural goods, while Hong Kong has developed its economy by manufacturing various goods and by developing an extensive trade network. However, the economic development in New Zealand, Hong Kong and many other countries throughout the world has been made possible because of the mental state of alertness in many individuals who comprise the populations of these countries.

The idea presented here, that to achieve economic prosperity a society needs to possess an alert state of mind, can be especially applied to those countries that are struggling to develop and prosper their economies. Being aware of the way in which evolutionary alarm sounds within languages impact the mentality of the populations which use alarm languages, we have the ability to transform the languages of the underdeveloped countries of the world as so far as to incubate a mental state of alertness in their populations.

For example, if we were to restructure the first two hundred most frequently used words in the languages of the economically underdeveloped countries (such as India) so as to increase the number of alarm sounds within their vocabularies, within a few years, this is likely to impact the mentality of their populations. Specifically, it is likely to increase their alertness and introversion, preconditions which they need to have in order to further develop.

The change of language is not as major as one might think, in fact it is as simple as adding as a vovel or a sound such as a nasal. To a word. This can be a slow process and not as difficult as learning a new language, Yet the benefits might be major.

A great Philosopher Nietzsche has said that new ideas must be supported and propagated, so that the world can benefit from them. This is such a new idea, whose application can take the world into a greater level of prosperity.

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